On The Psychical Progress of Nations

51 Art. iil_

” The internal development of mind, so far as it is historical, belongs as mucli as the external events of politics, to the department of human history.” Sclilegel.

The history of a nation is the history of a collective mind, for it is that ?^lnch projects and governs its actions. As individuals compose a com- munity. biography is the record of its common psychological character; So that a complete review of the psychical progress of nations is indeed a ^tory of the world.

In tracing this progress from its outset, we must of course find our- selves at once in a dilemma, as the obscurity of ancient history renders it ithcult to decide where the apocryphal ends and the authentic begins. The pages of sacred writ, abounding as they do with symbol and legory, require the deepest study and attention ere the divine can pre- sume to expound and interpret their grand and awful truths. Man is introduced to us at the dawn of creation as a pure and innocent being, resh from the hands of his Maker, an emanation, indeed, of the divine essence, endowed with qualities of which, as they partook of the angelic nature, and were fraught with holy intelligences and inspired knowledge, can merely form conjecture.

Even for ages after the fall, we are told that there was immediate and special communication of the Creator with man, which, as it implies a subversion of those natural laws that, as it seems to us, now govern the universe, have been termed special or supernatural. The history of le antediluvian world, therefore, can no more form a part of our essay an the fables of Confucius or of Ovid.

Early profane history is so emblazoned “with myth and exaggeration, , ^ ^e selection and sifting of their truths is a work of still greater 1 culty. The origin of almost every race is shrouded in obscurity? every ancient country had its mythical period, so that almost every his- ian of olden time opens his volume with a romance. The professed e-writer returns the compliment in kind, by so blending fiction and ‘ that shallow readers are completely bewildered in the maze?? more truth-like the fiction, the greater of course will be the dilemma. ^ plays of Shakespeare and the novels of Scott may in after ages excite or T?h controversy as the chronicles of the Cid, the poems of Ossian, e epics of Homer. It is thus genius flings a gauze veil over the b?ght mirror 0f truth.

a Psychical history of a nation, then, is a history of itself?its 0f ? nS’ .1^s exploits, its manners, its literature, are the manifestations its mind?the impulse of its psychical forces. For as it is with the ebeing, so is it, from tlie sympathy of surrounding circumstances, with the nation of which he forms a part.

If the world had progressed in its primitive state of innocence, we may believe that a regular progression of the intellectual development of nations may have ensued; but rivalry, ambition, discord, war?the results of sin?have combined to thwart this Utopian march. As nations and empires rise and fall, so of course the intellectual character of its members will flourish and decay. We must not, however, strictly measure the one by the other, nor must we always refer the political decline of an empire merely to a decadence of its intellectual energies. Young nations will again and again begin de novo?so that, however they may profit by the records and the wisdom of their prede- cessors, the universal mind is, as it were, broken up into sections, and we must often be content with tracing the psychical development of a nation as almost isolated from the influence of others.

Now if the globe were tenanted by one solitary being, it would be almost a folly to write about the development of his intellect. This tenant of the creation would, in the absence of psychical collision, be in every sense of the word a mere egotist?a slave to his animal instinct: his mind would ever centre in itself; for he would experience no blend- ing of thought,?no excitement of the higher sympathies. INI an would be a mere animal, with a superior or more extended capacity than other breathing things, and scarcely, perhaps, making a better use of his senses. However Camper might argue the accuracy of his facial angle, or Gall map out the surface of his cranium, still the facial mensuration would deceive, and the encephalic organization would, psychologically, be little more than a blank, in consequence of the want of influence to bring out its faculties.

If we would contemplate the immediate dawn of mind, and the rela- tive influence of instinct and reason, we should perhaps study the isolated child or solitary savage; but these phenomena are most rare, and we must be content to watch the gradual unfolding of the mind, warped and modified as it ever will be by the incessant sway which surrounding circumstances exert over its progress, and to reconcile, as far as we can, psychology with general history.

We must not pause to compare the impulsive power, the centrifugal force, the unvarying agency of instinct with our self-controlling reason, ?nor to inquire how far Rousseau and Monboddo were justified in their libellous comparisons,?nor to discuss the nature of mind. This would be vain, for the deepest philosophers, from Aristotle and Plato to our time, have differed, widely differed, in their psychological speculations. We must, however, be at once convinced that this mind is a germ to be developed. The savage, as Reid has hinted, may have the seeds of ? logician or a saint, which only wait to be vivified, somewhat as the atching of an animal ovum. Thus Peter the Great, from his bright ** vivifying example and legislation, brought out all the intellect of le Muscovite boors, which otherwise would have yet been but a latent t,ermj aud made his Russia one of the most powerful nations of the earth.

-luis national mind is often thus pent up, as it were, and not mani- e(*” waiting for its exciting cause?an agency most varied and subtle, and immensely complicated. The spring of some of our own Commotions was a mere expression of a man of high influence; and that o the second French revolution, the obstinacy of a citizen-king. So gla when this spark of mind is blown on, it will burst forth like wild- , ‘lu consequence of its psychical sympathies or imitative propensity, “rtness tlia Am’/io?;?, ^ +i>? ^mati,?the Mormons, &c. &c. And all this may be pathologically explained; for the brains of all are excited, the disease becomes eIJiuemic, and while it rages they call it an age of reason; soon, liow- eer> *? be terminated by the downfal of debased tyranny. Even now JJdJions of minds are so imprisoned, and only wait an occasion to burst lr bounds. The late simultaneous overthrow of thrones and dynas- s proves that the seeds of rebellion are universally scattered. progress of social life is one train of antagonisms. Instinct and r?ason are constantly warring against each other. There are infinite laues of difference displayed in this struggle?even in individuals of e same family,?and what is true of a tribe, is true, on a larger scale, of a nation.

must not, however, reason abstractedly on this point, otherwise nnght conjecture that two beings, placed in the same circumstances, display the same traits of character?that the copper Indian might p UU_ in-hand in the march of intellect with the Mexican and the ceTdVlaU” r^’e science ethnology must be deeply studied ere we pro- se^ t<J a t”S(luisition on the psychical progress of mankind. The primal a ? the migration and the present locality, of every race should be _ niplated,?a study in ethnological science which the maps of r|tc iard and the erudite history of Latham* will tend to elucidate. Ave ^ ari?ns conditions of the brain, also, must be demonstrated, ere 0j. Ctm Presnme to a full analysis of human action and the manifestation k^wund, or even to laud a fellow-being for his virtues or his vices. We 0NV that cerebral conformation, even of individuals of the same race, ?ver S an 1U^u^e varicty, and exerts a most potent and varied influence le ^leart. Indeed we may, as moralists, venture to affirm, that it * Tli v F.U.s. V at’,lr’1^ History of tbe Varieties of Man. By Robert Gordon Latham, M.D. ouJon, John Van Voorst, Paternoster-row.

is almost as difficult for some to be evil as for otliers to be good. A seeming virtue may scarcely have a motive, and vice may be so irresis- tible as to call forth, not an anathema, but even our pity, to temper our judgment. Not that we would foster the maudlin mercy so much in fashion, that qualifies every dastardly attack as the irrepressible impulse of a maniac; but we would soften down the asperity with which we might be disposed to deprecate the acts of those whose natural temperament renders them morbidly prone to a course which others less excitable, and even their own cooler judgment, would deplore and condemn.

We do not in this argue the all-in-all of organization. Education may raise high a low capacity, and bad habits depress lofty intellect. The truth lies midway between the sceptics and proselytes of phrenology. The scientific study of ethnology has proved to us the value of compara- tive phrenology in our analysis of national character. Not that we presume to solve the problem once proposed?” Given, a physical man, to find the true intellectual scope of genius;” but we lay it down almost as an axiom, that intellectual quality is at least intimately associated with the relative proportions of cerebral to the rest of the nervous tissue. But this rule, even among the lower varieties of our race, must be taken with exceptions. We find the idiot, the acephalous monster, born among the most perfect of the European races; so do Ave find an occasional ele- vation of development even in the wilds of -(Ethiopia, with its corre- sponding psychical superiority. But these may be deemed the lusus natures, and, perhaps more than aught else, prove and illustrate phreno- logical truth. The divine indeed has based his cmfo’-phrenological argu- ments on the faith of these exceptions, forgetting that there may be an exalted as well as a debased phenomenon of nature.

Then, although the capacity may be indicated by high frontal deve- lopment, we must remember that the tissue of the brain may be abnormal?either the hemispherical ganglion that conceives or regulates the thought, or the tubular neurine that transmits it, may be diseased ; and we believe that many psychical phenomena may be explained by a mere want of balance between these portions of the brain?in opposition somewhat to the hypotheses of our late friend Dr Wigan, with whom we have had the gratification of exchanging thoughts and books. Cowper’s grey-matter, for a whimsical instance, might be firm and originate a healthy idea, but the soft medulla might soon feel fatigued by its transmission; while Walter Scott’s well-balanced organization carried on its work with energy and harmony. Perchance some of these deviations may be referred to the parental age, state of mind and body, at the moment of impregnation, a subject which, although we do not follow up, engaged even the attention of that shrewd lady, the Mar- gravine of Anspach. The more the capacity of the cranium, then, e%- <5eeds that of the face, we may look for a higher grade of intellect. The reverse of this, so characteristic of the darker races, is not more con- spicuous than the inferiority of their psychical character?especially in the inhabitants of South Africa and the Polynesian islands, and the Arctic 0r hyperborean regions : and it is further illustrated by the facility of their extermination by the white races.

t ^he aborigines of Australia, of Papua, of Congo, and other African istricts, and even those of New Zealand, are characterised by the most degrading sensuality. Many of the southern Tasmanians have no idea a deity, and their lives are one course of cruelty and crime. A mere dream is both an impetus and an excuse for the most diabolical act. It is true that Barrow, Park, Barbot, and others, have eulogised the and generous disposition and chastity (!) of the black races, even of the Hottentot and Bosjesman, and have stated that they lend a wil- nS ear and are easily converted by the missionaries. But even if it be so, their generosity is as much a blind impulse as their revenge?it is cer- tainly not philanthropy. The Polynesian as well as iEthiop disregard ^ lth the most ungrateful indifference the valuable treasures which nature a? scattered round them, and especially the bounteous fertility of their Dative soil. It is asserted, too, that some of the Bushmen, as well as the 3ciuimaux, are so stolid, that, like the Yahoos of Swift, they are scarcely ^Vorth making slaves of.

As we ascend in cranial proportions, we see corresponding psychical development?the Malay, and many of the Americans,” and the insular Mongols are still inferior. Of the natives of Java, as a wondrous exception, Sir Stamford Baffles tells us they have no penal laws, be- cause they have no crime !?resembling in this the Pimos of Western 1;aerica; who, as Father Font informs us, neither steal nor quarrel, and therefore need no criminal or civil tribunals.

The American Indians, Dr Yon Martius asserts, are the lowest in psychology?but this may be explained by Bobertson’s affirmation, that le Spaniards petted their negro slaves, and thus reduced the status of e Indians; the Chaymas, and the Darien people, however, have to this y scarcely any idea of the science of numbers.

Ven the Mexicans and Peruvians, together with psychical obtuse- ^ess, Possess a corresponding apathy or want of sensibility, to which the ^ 111 courage has been applied. Bobertson eulogises the Mexican ramngs with coloured feathers; but, like the Chinese pictures and carvings, they were merely mechanical and of fine colours, indicating? c o also their casas grandes, as well as the temples and palaces of ? Incas in Peru, and the elaborately carved temples with pinnacles ^ 1C ^ordova discovered in 1817, among the Maya race, and which ?W exist in Yucatan?not a spark of genius.

When Cortez, with 500 men, came to Montezuma, although his city was immense and his court inagnificent(?), and when he erected the Cross and the Virgin and destroyed the idols of Zempvalla, this legion of warriors made no resistance. Their language, however, is marked by an unity that proves their depressed character not altogether depending on psychical causes. Historians have also eulogised the lofty virtues of the Incas, and Molina especially of the Araucans of Chili; but this again is more apathy than noble endurance, a quality which is exhibited in the coldness of their passions. In such a clime we might suppose their love to have been a lava flood instead of that indifference, in which indeed they resemble their more savage neighbours, among whom women are degraded and despised, treated as slaves, and slighted to that degree that few of them are prolific, and if the mother dies during lactation her child is buried with her.

The savage and the negro especially are conscious of their inferiority, and contemplate the accomplishments of the white races with wonder and envy, and without the slightest hope of imitation. Mungo Park especially alludes to this feeling in his account of Pisonia. When Columbus, too, first landed on Hispaniola, the natives thought he was a god, and worshipped him. This sentiment seems also to have infected the natives of Oriental India; else the myriads of Hindus, especially those of the Sunderbunds, would not have quailed before a handful of Europeans, with which Clive and Hastings began and completed the conquest of Hindostan. And yet they were among the descendants of that people who, under the command of Porus, drove Alexander back from the Punjaub.

Now individual examples of psychical excellence have, though rarely, shone among the inferior races, as we see cretinism and idiocy among the most enlightened communities. We are now visited by the con- verted chief of a tribe of Ojibbeways, who speaks our language fluently, eloquently, and has conceived and laboured in the grand project of civilizing the Indians of the North-West. But these, as Ave have before hinted, are exceptions to the rule?otherwise Capitein, Omai, Feodor, and Thay Endanega, would not be cited as phenomena among the ./Ethiopian Malay, Mongol, and American races. They are not types of their races. Strange is it, then, that arguments should be adduced from this against a science on the ground of exceptio7is. We must believe, then (whatever Humboldt and others have, written to the contrary), that certain races of men are physically deficient in the highest attribute of our being, reason; and especially regarding the analysis of the relation of psychical impressions with externals. The minds of many of them are, therefore, cyphers?they are animals of sense and sensation, and little more,?reasoning, like a dog, merely from memory. They can scarcely conceive of mind distinct from matter, or trace more than the immediate step from an effect towards a cause; and, therefore, they of course stop far short of first truths.

Their thought is a vain dream; and as they have little power of con- trolling or directing it, their intellect may he deemed a mild insanity, fadeless and wandering, without the faculty of attention, the basis of all mental exertion. In foresight, for example, how deficient is the Carib, ^ho will sell his hammock in the morning, when refreshed by sleep, not reaming that he shall need it again ere night comes on; and will neg- his sheltering hut when winter is gone.

Our chronological tables scarcely allude, in matters of science and erature, to others than the Caucasian variety of the old arrangement, a few of the Mongols. Some of the Transatlantic tribes are endued ^th very acute sense and energy; but these qualities, any more than le stolidity of the Malay, and the grovelling nature of the yEthiop, come ??t within the category of intellect. These races, in different degrees as it ^’ere imperfect, constitute four of the five varieties, in the favourite assification of Blumenbacli, and two of that of Cuvier, which was com- posed ?f three; the six varieties of the Systema Naturae of Linnaeus }nS a geographical error. In the varieties of man just quoted, the . 1Partite division combined with the ethnographic system of Pritcliard, ls nearly preserved mutato nomine; save that some of the psychically Superior classes, as the Turks, the Magyars, Circassians, and Georgians, ^e blended with the Mongolidae, the Japetidse, European, and Asiatic, .eillg pre-eminent in psychical excellence, and withal, with the excep- *l?n of the Ugrians and the Turks, the conquerors and masters of the ^?rld. Tiie researches of Dr Latham are acute and laborious, and will . ^e the effect of simplifying the science of ethnology, and of reconcil- S the psychical and philological history of mankind.

iegarding this psychical depression, we may refer, on the ground of analogy aU(j Qf higtorical record, to one influential cause, especially eryed among the Jews, and some other races, who, from principle,, custom, law, or isolation, are exclusive in their generation. The Negro, ^ lstaste did not so often counteract it, might somewhat improve his reed by crossing?indeed, we do see both beauty and intellect advanced t?.t intermingling of races. The infusion of European blood into- saage races at once raises the psychical character. The Mestigo, i ,TSS ^tween the European and the American Indian, is of higher ? e ect than the Mulatto, the offspring of a white and a Negro, and, 1 ee , little inferior to the Creole, who is of European blood, born in a ^ransatlantie clime. My esteemed, and I fear lamented friend, John rau -lin, assured me, that the psychical qualities of the half-breeds of or i America were far superior to that of the races devoid of European blood. The Persian nobles thus improved both the physical and psy- chical qualities of their races, by alliances with their Georgian captives. If we contrast the intellectual beauty of the Persian nobility with that of the Peninsular, who are almost exclusive in their unions, we shall at once be inclined to refer it to the excellence of Circassian development. Their breeding in-ancl-in, we may believe, has often depressed both the constitution and intellect of royal and noble families, as well as of the Hebrew race. The system of crossing, indeed, is a lex scripta among the breeders of flocks and herds?to which, perhaps, the vigour of bastardy may offer some analogy;?the dwindling also of the potato tuber is cer- tain if it be limited to one locality or soil.

If we measure psychology on geographical principle, we shall discover that the seat of science has been limited to the temperate zone, and has ranged between the 35tlx and GOtli degrees of north latitude. And here, also, we have the clearest proof of the importance of organization in psychical advance, displayed in the comparative intellectual powers of different races within these degrees; those of central Asia, for in- stance, compared with those of Europe. Even among the Chinese, the highest of the Asiatic Mongolidte, slavery is the fashion, from the chief mandarin, downwards.

There is also something of an interesting assimilation between the corresponding latitudes of the old and new world. Of this the Mugri- sians, the Samoiedes, the Ugrians, the Fins, the Kamscliatkadales, and the Esquimaux, are examples. The Tartar corresponds Avitli the Mexican, the Moor with the Floridan or the Natches, some of the least unintel- lectual among the Transatlantic aborigines: the Malay with the Yucatan; the Papuan with the Carib; the Albinoes of Darien with the Negroes of Africa, among which, indeed, are observed whole families of white Negroes; these, however, are mules or abortions, rather than a race. If we compare the varieties of man, regarding their power of resist- ance, even among conquered nations, we find them greater in the Cauca- sians, and also their faculty of imitation or acquirement of knowledge from their victors. The Britons and Celts soon profited so much by the contemplation of their invaders, that they eventually turned and dis- lodged them. The Polynesians have never learned this lesson from their conquerors. These aborigines, evincing little more than a tutored instinct, continue to drudge and grovel in their slavery, and will, in the end, be exterminated. The Tasmanians, located in one of the most luxu- riant districts of the globe, had not begun to till the soil long after the Europeans had settled among them and were reaping the rich harvests of their cultivation.

Mere isolation cannot sufficiently account for all these deficiencies, this tardy progress or abeyance of intellect. No doubt the collision? the antagonism of intellect of an inferior with a superior race, will often confer on it great improvement. The step of the ancient Romans to eloquence and refinement was the example of Greece and Sicily. With Nations of tlie same degree of capacity, this collision will ever prove a Mutual benefit; for the intellectual races of the world are like the learned societies of a metropolis?one communicates with the other, and hotli discuss, and thus mind and truth are developed, the germs of know- ledge are brought into light. As one field lies fallow another is tilled; so the crops of science are perpetually springing, and new minds are added to the intellectual world.

The immense facility of present intercommunication will speedily effect wonders, and equalize and assimilate all the races displaying an equal degree of cerebral development. The Georgian frontal beauty ma)’ not long want the corresponding grade of intellect, yet it has hitherto been so. But Minerva may yet rebuild her temple in ^ estern Asia. It may be that some approximation of physiognomical expression may also be effected by this interchange and culture of mind; f?r as there must be organic development to ensure intellect, intellectual study will modify the cranial proportions, so that in the end an un- tutored European may display less intellect than a cultivated Asiatic Mongol.

With cerebral development we might here combine temperament, age, and sex?all deeply influential in the creation of character. The first only comes within our limits. The constitution of the blood, as we see it in- dicated, especially by hue and complexion, bears intimately on the sub- ject. The terms melancholic, nervous, lymphatic, and sanguine, are but definitions of condition dependent chiefly on the blood and its products. ^ et, although they are of national as well as individual importance, we must leave them among the principles of general pathology. Not the least effect of this intercommunication will be its influence on language, to which psychical progress must be so much indebted, and by which it may indeed be in some degree measured. If we regard the Polynesians,? almost all the Oceanic Mongolidaj of Latham, except those of the Malay Peninsula, and especially the Papuans,?we find the language one of almost inarticulate gabbling, resembling, even in the opinion of the peninsular Malays, the chattering of birds. In them there is no psychical Progress; their faculty is like instinct, as it was in the beginning. Even the Chinese and the Tibetian, among the Altaic Mongolidse of Latham, though ingenious and clever, are certainly not intel- lectual; the language is monosyllabic, aptotic, and puerile; the alpha- etj which is hieroglyphic or rhsematographic, consisting of 80,000 Words. “We cannot believe that there can be a lofty psychical progress when a dictionary can scarcely be learned or comprehended in a life. The other monosyllabic languages are those of Oriental Tartary, the Malayan, and Indo-American districts, and we see at once their asso- ciation with a low psychical development.

There are, however, many glossological problems to be solved. The Yakuts, or Northern Asiatic Mongols, who resemble the Esquimaux in character, possess a language intelligible in Constantinople. The polysyllabic tongues indicate a race of higher intellect. The Indo- Persic, the Grace-Latin, the Teutonic, with the Arabic and Hebrew, are clearly and excellently adapted for the communication of ideas, and with them we witness the perfection of intellect. The language of the Cir- cassians, however, once deemed the model of a race, is not perfect? ” position,” according to Dr Latham, ” doing the work of an inflection,” ?as ab-dce?-father-horse?the priority of ah indicating possession, or the genitive case. The roots of language, however, may often be almost forgotten when Ave are perusing the perfect glot. The various languages comprehend five or six thousand families, split into innumerable dialects or idioms seemingly dissimilar. Even those of Britain are five or six; the Teutonic or German, the Scandinavian or Norse, and the Gaelic and Cwmric branches of the Celtic, contributing to perfect our modern English tongue.

We cannot attempt to analyse the system of glossology. Among the families of Asia and Europe, however, very striking resemblances are discovered between tongues at first apparently dissimilar, e. cj. those of India, Persia, Greece, Bome, Germany, and perhaps the Scan- dinavian or Norse, the Slavonic and the Celtic being still dissimilar; these comprehend the intellectual races. The Tschudic, the Oceanic, and others, are the medium merely of conversation and commerce. Begarding the intermingling of races also, Ave have in glossology a proof of intellectual superiority: the most perfect or psychical language soon becomes the common medium, as Ave see in the modern languages of this day. We may yet refer all inflectional languages more or less to classical roots. To analyse these would require a volume; and perhaps, in attempting such a labour one might often come to this quaint con- clusion of Goldsmith?by changing ” Psam” into ” A,” and ” mis” into ” toes,” Ave prove, by a very natural and easy conversion, King Psammis and Atoes to be one and the same man.

The analysis of Dr Latham, lioAvever, is so acute and laborious, that Ave may safely refer the curious philologist to his erudite volume. The classification is more simple and more natural than that of previous* systems, (the tripartite division of the human race being that Avhicli Ave ourselves have long mentally adopted,) and it will assuredly form the text-book of future disquisitions in ethnology.

We believe, then, that we may consider organization as the natural ON THE PSYCHICAL PROGRESS OF NATIONS. 01 essence of psychical development. The earliest history of mankind, sacred and profane, refers with scarcely an exception to that race hitherto termed Caucasian, including the Hindus of high caste, the Persian, and 4-1 T-1 e -Egyptian. With these we witness the dayspring of the arts, the <lawn of early literature. Sculpture was confined to the schools of Greece, Italy, France, and ?England, and painting to the latter three. The national mind of their great cities lias loner trloried in the pre-eminence of their art. The T?1 .

orentine, like the ancient Athenian, looks on his glorious city with alm?st a filial veneration. The magnificence of the Oriental temples, Salsette, Elephanta, even Thebes and Carnac, does not indicate so high a degree of development; its beauty is merely that of gorgeous and ex- quisite detail; it possesses no architectural proportion or symmetry that aPproaclies the styles of the gothic or classic lands. We allude to India, China, and Persia, and not, of course, to Palmyra and Balbec. The pillars and huge structures of Egypt, the pyramids, Memnon, and ^le Sphinx, like the Cyclopean works of Greece, the colossal statues that La Perouse and Cook discovered in Easter Island, and our own Stonelienge, certainly excite our wonder, but it is the admiration of Magnitude: they are the effects of slave-labour, the co-operation of a servile clan. The newly discovered Transatlantic temples, especially those of Yucatan, which, as they closely resemble the Oriental, indicate an ethnological mystery yet to be unfolded, are curious, but not beautiful. Regarding India especially, perhaps the division of the nation into Rervile castes may have somewhat to do with this. The Brahmin was ordained to pray and teach, the Chehetree to fight, the Bice to till and traffic, and the Sooder to serve and labour. If he violate these rules of ls caste he is excommunicated and outlawed, and is called a Pariah or a Chandela. Thus the Hindu mind has been fettered, whatever his genius, ?ne line of exertion, and he must of necessity lag behind the freeborn Ur?Pean, whose genius is allowed full scope to soar as his enthusiasm ^ay direct or impel him.

It has been affirmed that we are now below the ancients in the march science. Guizot has asserted that ” modern literature is far inferior to the ancient.” Is it so1? No; our modern works are little short of a Oracle, and if the magic of engineering slept with Archimedes, (and we accept no more than a tithe of his greatly-exaggerated power,) Beaton and Telford, and Brunei and Stephenson, have, with a glorious Purpose, roused it from its slumbers. The works of their lofty genius are evidence of the progressive nature of intellect. ) > in the composition of colour, Correggio and Titian, and Claude and ri lo, ruay have been pre-eminent, the modern English school far !pses them in conception, freedom, and delicacy of touch.

(52 ON THE PSYCHICAL PROGRESS OF NATIONS.

In the senate, the elegance of Cicero and the energy of Demosthenes- have been at least equalled by many a modern statesman; and the Vir- gilian numbers must yield to the magnificent genius, the poetic beauty, and the exquisite verbiage of Byron.

The perfection of the wondrous creations, the universality of genius, of the twin stars, Shakspeare and Scott, (for it is no profanation to asso- ciate the bard of the Tweed with him of the Avon,) have gone forth, and are confessed, throughout the civilized world.

But to favour this pre-eminence, were combined geographical position, climate, temperature, soil; their blood was neither chilled into apathetic and mindless indifference by the icy breath of the Arctic circle, nor their temperaments disordered, their dispositions degraded, nor their energy dropped, by the hot winds of the tropics. Their lives were not, like those of the hyperborean races, one unvaried course of defence against elemental foes, nor of voluptuous indulgence, like those of the equinoc- tial or tropic people. The sun smiled on their climate like a mild and fostering nurse, rendering it beautifully varied and congenial. They were, therefore, surrounded by circumstances calculated to foster social and intellectual development; there was a combination of favour- ing causes.

Tasso would not have recorded his voluptuous love-breatliings amid the snows of Zemla, nor would the pencils of Ilaphael and Correggio have created their divinities had they set up their easels amid the sands of Sahara.

In the marshes we see the lymphatic temperament prevail, combined with indolence and mental sloth. Abdera was so characterized that stupidity was termed ” Abderitica mens!” When we are compelled to resist an excess of evil?the stern realities of life?instinct, as in the Esquimaux, is called into play, rather than reason. In cold, heat, hunger, there is little scope for the poetry of existence. Eulogise as we may the genius of Burns, Bloomfield, Hogg?would they not have written better in the smiles of prosperity, in trimming that native fire which reverses could not altogether quench? For after all there was much common stuff emanating from their pens, and they eminently failed in farm-keeping and shoe-making. All that we can say is, ” they were very fair notwithstanding As a rule, therefore, the intellectual being is more perfect if he breathes an atmosphere congenial to the expansion of mind: and a hue is often imparted to the species of intellectual blossoming and fruit by the especial qualities of climate. In the sunny clime of the Medi- terranean, poetry and painting found a home. Cradled amid the shadows of the glorious Appenines, smiled on by the sun, o’ercanopied by the ” deeply, darkly, beautifully blue” arch of heaven, the sister arts have keen instilled into hearts and minds almost from infancy. Still would ^ e not imply that mind is cold or barren in proportion as it approaches 10 Arctic circle. The Scandinavian Sagas, the Skalds of Iceland, Psala, Stockholm, Gustavus, Linnaeus, Berzelius, Jenny Lind, will indicate the claims of the Baltic to all posterity.

^ et organization hears its sway, although the constitution of the mind ^le constitution of the climate contrast and oppose each other. ^ ycumstances may alter, they will not metamorphose the intellectual 1Qg. His superiority will loom out at the equator, ” or Zemla, or le Lord knows where,” while the iEthiop will never soar, although the kc? d an(l the French Academy to boot, were to take him in ” Ccelum non animum mutant qui trans mare currant.”

Een the old Roman spirits do not sleep. The Trasteverini still f ?f their Roman lineage, and even their descent from Troy; and ^ssic physiognomy does not belie them.

^ 0 attempt to trace the course of the human mind, from its dawn to Present hour, must be as futile as to adduce an abstract cause for ?Vp^T ^e^ectual manifestation.

lu the very origin of a nation, it is clear, if we adduce Eomu- Us> Lrahma, or Odin, as founders, that history at once dwindles to a e- The maps, too, are marked with the sites of illustrious countries cities?Babylon and Ilium, for instance”; yet the locality and limits le first, as well as those of Assyria, Syria, Phoenicia, Scytliia, and the ^ery existence of the second, are still doubted. The date as well as the Nation of ancient kingdoms, and their relative priority of birth, niUst often be mere conjecture. We must, therefore, ever commence ofyask at a far later date than their affirmed birth. The early records in Assyria, Chaldsea, India, China, Greece, Rome, are all involved ? fcunty. The researches of Rawlinson and Layard may unfold much this mystery.

Then the ancient and modern histories regarding religion and language and^ GSSentially differ- The Egyptians, once the subjects of the Pharaohs oiemies, are now a jumble; the Arab hordes, once Sabeans, are ?* lahomedans; and the Copts are Christians.

roughout the earlier ages the heathen philosophy of the Hindu ?f?th U -Egyptian priests was blended with the glowing psychology that i S?ns.0^ ^ran a^ter the victories of Cyrus and Cambyses, imparting u eautiful though completely imaginative tone to the psychical dieter of the then known world

Nation DaUS^ a^S0 constantly separate the early and the late theology of le ‘ T Bel, Dagon, Thaumuz, do not now reign as the mytho- &1Ca of the Egyptians, the Assyrians, and the Syrians. The grand metempsychosis from imagination to rationalism took place on the field of Marathon, when the Hellenes overcame the fire-worshippers, and a, colder philosophy, still blended with the myths of the Zend and the Sanskrit which tinge and taint our classic pages, was adopted. This maybe termed the second grand spring of the human mind; for although Homan arms subdued the bodies of Greece, the psychical stamp of the Hellenic philosophy and poetry remains a model to our own day. In the Oriental records we constantly discover the greatest ignorance end presumption. The Japanese affirm the reign of one of their emperors to have been more than two millions of years; and the Hindus boast the high antiquity of their Sanskrit, also to hundreds of thousands of years. The Chinese are equally bombastic, although the real history of their religion cannot date further than 200 years before the Christian era; while the Indian Sagas would locate the physical and psychical birth of the world in the immediate vicinity of that mountain range which, either on this account or that it is the geographical summit of the globe, they have denominated Himalaya, or Heaven.

Now, wherever intellect had its birth in the east, it is clear that its tide has set progressively westward. India, Persia, Chaldsea, Assyria, Judtea, what now is the manifestation of their psychical degree? slavery, bigotry, or ignorance; and the learning that was once their pride and glory has fled to adorn and enrich the climes of Western Europe.

Schlegel, with the peculiar intuition of his country, has compared, very graphically, the mental elements of the four chief nations of the primitive world.

The national mind of the Hebrews, he believes, was eminently susceptible of divine truth; that of Egypt, deeply constructive and skilled in the more abstruse mysteries of science,?as we learn, indeed, from the description of the golden zodiac in the temple of Orymandes, and other astronomical works; that of the Hindu is coloured (we may write stained) by the most prurient imaginativeness; while that of China is to this day, with all its idol-worship, the same simple theism as in the time of Confucius?the slavery of sovereign reason.

This might once be true, but there has been much amalgamation of these various attributes. There is much resemblance in poetic imagina- tiveness between the Indian, the Persian, and the Hebrew, while the Egyptian is completely metamorphosed.

The Altaic Mongolidse are still unchanged. The Chinese alone?the ” Mongol softened down”?although an isolated race, exhibit superior psychical character. Literature scarcely forms a department of their intellect; but their genius is extensively though not deeply blended with the arts and luxuries of the world, of which silk, tea, and porcelain are Ple daily illustrations. Their exclusiveness, isolation, narrow-minded Jealousy, and tlie religion of Fo, which they profess in common with the offsets of the empire, mark them as dissociated from the rest of the Clylized world. Yet the analogies of their sacrifices, their laws, both With other ancient nations and with the records of holy writ, point to some yet unfolded secret.

Their offerings resemble those of the first brothers in Paradise. In the countries bordering on Assam, one man is enjoined to marry his pother’s widow; and a lover, as in the land of Israel, wins or earns his Wife by years of agricultural servitude; while the patriarchal system is the prominent feature of family life. In some districts of the Thi- .an c?untry, polyandry is said to have prevailed; but the history of . Una and India, and Persia and Greece, exhibit so many close affini- *les> that ethnology may have an interesting study even in tracing their bogies and parallels.

The early records of the Greeks claim almost as high antiquity as the e brews. Indeed, they refer to their king, Pelasgus, who gave his lltaue to the primitive inhabitants of Greece, as ” Earth’s firstborn,” and who eventually overran Italy, Spain, and other Mediterranean Qds. They had also a deluge and an earthquake, which separated Ossa Olympus. Sicyon is called the first Greek city; its date more ^’an 2000 years before Christ. Long after this, the Hellenes, the auii, the Dorians, the Cadmians, the Argives, possessed the land. The aSe of the heroes Perseus, Hercules, Theseus, Jason, Achilles, their ln}’ths and polytheism, compose a fable, and we of course pass by their etallic ” dome of heaven,” and the author, whoever he be, Avho wrote 10 “rst and finest epics of any age?the Iliad and the Odyssey, and take as the first authentic instance of their wisdom, the confederacy of the puictyonic Council, and the sources of their high pride of prowess |~”^he Olympic, ISTemsean, and Isthmian games. Then follow thelegis- th^6 W*S(^0IU Lycurgus, in Lacedtemon; of Solon, in Attica; and e establishment of the first tripartite constitution of king, lords, and ^ommons?then termed the Arclion, the Areopagus, and the Four undred; and the school of Phidias, from which first beamed forth the ecuons of ideal beauty. Let us but glance at all this, and we must oniess the eminence of early Greece in aught that could ennoble and a,1?m a heathen race.

ca/01? 300 to 500 years before Christ, a resplendent constellation still a halo over Greece: Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, in philosophy; t’mostheneg, iu tbe Senate; Sophocles and iEschylus, in the drama; the |aS ant^ ^eux*s’ the arts; Miltiades, Themistocles, Leonidas, in p . a ^eld; Hippocrates, in the science of medicine. The noble ieon was built by Pericles, and adorned by the magic chisel of Phidias. These, and many other men and deeds of worth, must mark the palmy days of Greece as the most glorious sera of the world. For a long period ancient history records a series of intestine and foreign wars. For two centuries, at least, there was a dearth of high psychical character: but an sera was approaching which was to throw a holy light over the path of man. Anaxagoras, the first Unitarian, had sapped the foundation of polytheism, and proved the being of one deity ?the source of nature; Scipio, by the third Punic war, had destroyed Carthage, the mistress of half the then known Europe, and with her, the last of the great blood-sacrificers; and Plato, by his disquisition on the immortality of the soul, paved the way, as it were, for the Christian sera.

The triumph of peace in moulding the national psychology of Rome rendered the Augustine sera so illustrious as to become a proverb. Virgil, Ovid, Horace, Cicero, Livy, Tibullus, rendered their age the spring of that sparkling brilliancy that even now delights the classic mind; but the character of that early sera, like that of pagan Greece; was not virtue. Stoicism, it might be; but that was but another name for heathen pride. As yet there was no divine light to consecrate the mind and heart. Men were the rational pupils of Nature, and adored her with a blind worship?self-murder Avas a virtue! Even the honied numbers of Virgil and Horace were debased by licentiousness; and it is a melancholy evil that those pages, which abound with all the beauty, melody, and sublimity of poetry, should teem Avith the most debasing immorality. After an age in which sloth or vice had infected the rulers of pagan Rome, and contentions inflamed the minds both of patrician and plebeian, the sun of Christianity arose, and as it purified and softened the hearts of men seems to have changed the psychical character also of the age. History and biography Avere the subjects of the pen?the gospels and the records of the apostles’ acts engrossed the mind. The Plinys, Josephus, Tacitus, Floras, Plutarch, compiled their histories, until at length Con- stantine removed the seat of empire and learning to Byzantium, and spread Christianity to the shores of the Bosphorus. This transplanta- tion did not produce much advance of intellectuality, although the Greek denizens avIio Avere called the Byzantine historians, have left volu- minous records. And when the second Mahomet again conquered Constantinople from the Greeks, the doAvnfall of all intellectuality ensued. The only evidences indeed of psychical energy or eminence being displayed in their architecture, especially the Mosques, as that of the Moors during their sojourn in Spain Avas by the construction of an Alhambra.

The Greek emigrants deluged Rome and Constantinople Avith Hellenic literature, and from thence the Western nations of Europe, Italy* prance, Germany, Britain, Florence, which subsequently, under the ledici and Bessarion, became almost Greek academies.

Aristotle and Plato were the great oracles of the schools of psychology aQd natural history, and the terms of art and science were defined by reek names. It was the Latin language, however, that characterized all the northern shores of the Mediterranean, the Peninsula, and indeed the European nations not originally Sclavonic, as Russia and Po- and, and Illyria on the Adriatic shore, and the Roman alphabet, ended with the Greek, became the prototype of all the present alplia- ets ?f the intellectual world. Even when, in the 17th century, the toman influence had waned, and Gaul, Britain, Spain, and Italy were ^le abode of Franks, Saxons, Goths, and Lombards, the classic lan- guage was still that of the church and theology.

We therefore regard Rome as the great centre or focus of intellect into ^hich the Orientals, the Greeks, and the Germans poured their treasury learning, to be concentrated at last in the west. At the time Gregory e<l the papal chair his mind was engrossed by his missions. The chief 0ccupation of his monks was the writing and illumining of missals, Until Augustine infused the light of Christianity into the British people, a branch of that race which Dr Latham calls Indo-Germanic Japetidaj, ^ossed with the Kelts or occidental Japetida?, from their first seat in e central regions of Europe, the farthest point to which we can trace them.

^lle desire for learning which Augustine imparted to the Britons was ni0re and more fostered by the Anglo-Saxons, (although the myths and steries of the Teutonics tinged for a time the mind of the British iS Gs as we even now discover in the derivations of our week-day Raines) until Alfred in his wisdom established the first English constitu- n> about the period when Charlemagne was endeavouring to enlighten ‘ranee. It is curious that light poetry from the lips of his mother ou d have brought out the first truly great mind that shone upon ^ British isles. .

The translation of a portion of the sacred Scriptures and of Bedc’s ?ryj the endowment of public schools, and the mission of the first mi ^ expedition to India, prove the enlightened scope of Alfred’s ? But Alfred had been twice to Rome, and had received the royal st?n f-?m Leo tlie Third’ clia 1 ^ example conferred no lasting mark on the psychical sji^ae^er ?f the Anglo-Saxons, whose intellectual attainments were e> ed, and termed barbarian ignorance, even by the unintellectual Normans.

Sax ?re ^1G ^on(lues^ Britain was composed of three races, Anglo- onj Gallic, and the Cwmri; a strange compound of Angles, Saxons, f 2 Cambrian, and Pictish Kelts, Irish and Scotch, and Manx Gaels, and different districts of our isles Avere characterized by the Saxon, the Mer- cian, the Hibernian, and Caledonian idioms. In our own day, the Irish or Erse idiom is confined to their western counties and the lower classes of Erin?the Caledonian to the western isles and the Highlands, and Manx to the mining and northern districts of Man.

After the Conquest, the national mind was long agitated, especially by contentions with the Saxons, until the reign of Henry the First, which was perhaps the most quiet and peaceful one of British annals. It was not, however, until the reign of the Second Henry, the most accomplished and amiable prince of his time, that the psychical cha- racter of the British nation was first elevated to an intellectual degree. Even then the communication of ideas was little more than oral. Records were few, consisting of Anglo-Saxon runes, a few monkish missals, and the manuscripts of the clerici or clerks : although even in pagan Borne there was a sort of printing, and, as Boger Bacon informs us, a sort of block printing, even then in China. But there were no master minds to work out a discovery like those of Guttenburg and Caxton to perfect that art, which produced the greatest psychical reno- vation of the age, and which Luther felt eventually to be the greatest help in the march of the Beformation, especially by the spread of the Greek language, which he deemed essential to the study of the holy books.

After the feudal system and the great charter had civilized and quieted the people, the expanded mind of the third Edward raised still higher the prowess and the fame of England. The battles of Cresci and Poictiers were fought and won, and by the conquest of “Wales and Scotland, England became Great Britain.

This was the period in which the Saxon and old English dialects be- came pure English. Chaucer’s poetry, ” that well of English undefiled,” and Mandeville’s Travels, being the first well-written books of the four- teenth century.

The wars of the Boses, an age of fraternal bloodshed, again blighted the national mind, and filled the land with weeping and groaning. Henry of Lancaster sat on a throne of thorns, and his son stained and desecrated his reign with his domestic murders. The virtues of Edward the Sixth again brought blessings on the land. In few brief years of his reign, three large hospitals arose, which still cast a glory round his name. England was a school of pure charity?too soon to be converted again into a bloody arena. Let us sum up the murders of the Catholic and the Protestant sisters. Jane Grey and Mary Stuart, Seymour, Somerset, Dudley, Northumberland, Norfolk, and Essex, for state policy; Cranmer, Ridley, and Latimer, for heresy. Let us blusli for tle dark side of human nature.

The age of Elizabeth, however, was studded with stars of learning, e greatest of which was Bacon, whose inductive philosophy, in oppo- sition to that of Leibnitz on the continent, enlightened, while it strength- ened and purified the national mind. It was then the fashion for ladies _ be learned; the queen herself was deeply read, and not a little proud in boasting of her attainments. Sidney, Spenser, Raleigh?above all, x.spear, complete the psychical glory of the Elizabethan reign. This Was the end of what was termed the middle English language, and from tins period there was a change, not only of language itself, but of national thought and sentiments.

During the Stuart dynasty, if we except the commonwealth and le belligerent reign of the Nassau, learning and wit were not idle. ?yle and Newton, Sydenham and Harvey; Dryden, Butler, Otway, ?Pe, Addison; and Buckingham and Rochester, attest the psychical eminence of Britain in philosophy, medicine, poetry, and wit. To revert. The inundation from Scytliia seems to have populated the eater part of Europe; to them the Cimbri or Danes, the Teutones or ernians, and the Scandinavian, or Norse, owe their origin. Yet among lem we perceive superstitions that closely resemble those of the Orien- and even the transatlantic Indians. The Keltic Druids, like the -“-nidus, the Peruvians, and the Carthaginians, burned victims on the fltar, to propitiate their gods; and like the Pythagoreans, they believed ln Metempsychosis.

The early creed of the Norse races was theism. It was a religion of sensuality, like that of Maliomedans and of the classic mythology. ?tn m Odin’s and Mahomet’s paradise, voluptuous girls ministered to 10se renowned for earthly virtue. The valkas of Odin, however, were *nore of the Hebe; Mahomet’s houris, more of the Venus. Drinking, lerefore, was the order of the day with Odin?sensuality with Mahomet, .^et we are told the Goths taught the Southerns chastity. We doubt ? And it was seven hundred years after what they term the coming of *n, ere they were Christianized.

1^. leir psychical scope was limited, the Runic stones and sticks .’m? almost the only aids to memory, and confined to the Scandina- ^ scribes, who little dreamed of making a volume to record a train of oughts and reasonings. Their intellect was debased; the poetry of aeir scalds, or poets, absurd.

le discovery and settlement of Iceland and Greenland, however, are ^ ,UuilnP?rtant points in geography, as it was indeed the first discovery x meiica, if Ave may credit the beautiful “Codex Flatoiensis,” written on vellum by Eirek tlie Red, one hundred years before the first voyage of Columbus.

The pages of Icelandic literature certainly indicate some genius, the Eddaic being superior to the Skald and Saga writing; its style resem- bling in a low degree the magnificent Arabian romance of Antar. Like tlie Bedouins, the European Slavi were originally wanderers, and were soon overwhelmed by Ostrogoths, Ugrians, and Fins. The offspring of the Slavonians are Russians of the Greek church; and Servians, Poles, and Illyrians, of the Romanist. Their psychical character was ever low, rude warfare being their chief aim; although roots of their lan- guage are interwoven with the classic. The spring of the intellectual advance of the Russian, was the establishment of the Greek church by Vladimir, and the baptism of the Princess Olga. The people had become- half Christianized, when Yaroslof, the successor of this Russian Alfred, like Egbert of England united many provinces. Still, commotions and intestine war depressed the intellectual scale, until Peter I., by his own quaint though firm example, raised the psychical and constructive spirit of his nation, which Catherine, with all her grossness, still im- proved, herself being a dramatic writer. Yet they were a nation of serfs, until Alexander civilized the Russian boor by the foundation of schools and universities, and orders of merit. How did his country prove its gratitude? The czar, as we are informed by a noble lady, walked at his coronation, “preceded by the assassins of his grandfather, followed by those of his father, and surrounded by his own.”

The first natives of the peninsula were Iberians; the Basque pro- vinces, however, excite our greater interest psychologically, as their lan- guage bears a more ancient date than any other in Europe, being spoken not only throughout Spain and Portugal, but carried to the eastern shores of the Mediterranean. The peninsula has, however, been the constant victim of invasion. She was the prey of the Romans and of the Moors, when the Arabic was the common language, until Ferdinand and Isabella, the sovereigns of Aragon and of Castile, terminated the wars of the cross and the crescent, and made Spain one kingdom, at the dawn of the 15th century. From this period we may date the psychical progress of the peninsula.

Although the scriptures were early translated into Spanish, a blind fanaticism overspread the land. The psychical character partook of the lieat of her climate, especially the first prose of Alonzo, and the poetry of the monk Gonsalvo, and the composition of the Sequidilla and the Spanish ballads.

The “Guerras de Granada” was the first model of the historical novel, in which De Hita has preceded Scott, in making his hero of an enemy. The lives of Gonsalvo de Cordova, of the Cid, and of other heroes, evince the full conception of knight-errantry, which the racy romance of “Don Quixote” so unmercifully attacked, and with almost as much success as the Don himself did the wine-skins.

We trace the scope of the Spanish genius through a succession of sparkling and imaginative works; those especially of the voluminous dramatists, Lope de Yega and Calderona; of De Leon, the first Spanish ?de writer; of ” Boscan and Garcilasso,” over which Don Juan pored; the racy novels of Lazarillo de Tormes and Guzman de Alfarasclie; and the exquisite portraiture of Murillo and Velasquez.

Suddenly, in the 16th century, a blight came over the psychical march Spain, chiefly the work of Cardinal Ximenes. The Inquisition arose ^ith all its horrors, and freedom of thought and pen were fettered and arraigned. Not only did the flames destroy her sons, but all their valued stores of literature. So the 17th century was a blank in Spanish psy- chology^ and so also will be the 18tli.

The psychology of the oriental nations points to India as one of the’ ^ost interesting studies, as it is a sort of type of the higher intellect of Asia. Its intellectual character, if we may judge from their ancient records, has not progressed from the time of Megasthines?the period of her greatest learning being as far back as her earliest authentic history. The science of ^etaphysics is profoundly treated in the Sanchya and Nyaya systems: *u the former, natural philosophy and the infinite mind of its author.- ?But it is too transcendental, especially that termed the “i oya philosophy. It is enough, however, combined with the beauties of its poesy, to prove the deeply imaginative minds of the ancient Hindus.

In the Vedanta philosophy we are presented with that beautiful fiction ?f transmigration, which, we might believe, more than a score of Martin’s aets, would inculcate and ensure a freedom from cruelty to animals. 1^ey who believe that the souls of their relatives and friends pass into the bodies of the brutes, will be loth to treat them harshly, but would* rather cherish and protect them. This is one of the charities that almost consecrates superstition. The psychology of India has been retrogressive. Ker wealth and her fertility have attracted, from the earliest ages, the broads of the invader. She has been conquered and enslaved in con- sequence of her division into many small states, which either spontane- ously warred with each other, or were inveigled into opposition by the Uiore powerful victor; and thus, on the principle of ” divide et imp era, Hindostan still remains a sort of psychological problem.

The nature of climate, and other influences, cause the ethnological characters of the Hindus and the Persians to approximate. Their superstitions and their languages are also in close assimilation. The ^end and the Pali dialects are parallels of the Sanskrit and Prakrit of the Brahmin. The solar theism also is common, in varied degrees, to both countries. But we may extend this parallelism to countries re- mote from these Oriental climes; the worship of Belus at Babylon, and of Osiris in Egypt, suffice to associate the superstitions and theology of nations. The Mosaic authority may be said to corroborate this belief, as it refers to the resemblance of the two great monarchies in the world, Elam and Egypt, the Persians and Hindus being the people of the first. It is by these psychical resemblances that we are drawn imper- ceptibly nearer to the illustrations of the Mosaic cosmogony. So that the prosecution of ethnology, the Oriental researches of Layard, and the wondrous unfoldings of paleontology, will progressively tend to reconcile those historical discrepancies which have been the stumbling-block of the divine and the triumph of the sceptic.

Egypt, throughout its various transitions, has imparted its character to the surrounding countries?to those of Phoenicia and Chaldcea especi- ally, its theology and its astronomical science. The Arabs were once enlightened, and, we are told, mighty mathematicians. Some, however, even before the birth of Islamism, were, like the Jews, a wandering tribe, and possessing no fixed residence. The Bedouins lapsed into such a state of unintellectuality, that it was termed their ” time of ignorance? passing their years, like the Scotch borderers, in inroads and maraudings. They became gross idolaters, and lived in sexual socialism, a state which, combined with errant habits, afforded no scope for psychical advancement. The fixed tribes, however, adored the shrine of Mecca, once the dwelling of Abraham and Ishmael, who was probably their primal ancestor, and even prided themselves on their literature, and especially their orations, which are stated to have been highly epigrammatic. At Ochadli they held an annual poetical exhibition, and the Modhahabat, or Moallakat, and the ” golden verses,” were hung up in the Caaba. This profanation was abolished by Mahomet, and he gave them in lieu the holy war. Their chief literary glory and inspiration was the wondrous tale of Antar, a hero equal to Hercules or Achilles. It was written by Asmael in the reign of Haroun Alrashchid, about the sera of Charlemagne. It is highly extolled by Sir William Jones, who affirmed it to be very superior to the tliousand-and-one nights, as a true picture of Arabian life. Their name now designates a people that overrun the deserts of two quarters, even as the Jew compasses the financial area of four quarters of the globe. In a civilized sense, therefore, an Arab is but a name, al- though the Semitic or Syro-Arabian language, together with the Hebrew tongue, are placed by Scldegel at the summit of the dialectic pyramid. The pyschical history of intellectual nations may be located within a limited circle, if compared with the superficies of the globe, of which the shores of the Mediterranean, and especially the classic lands, are the southern bounds, the chief abode of the Iapetidse of Latham. The com- plete psychical history of the varieties of man would here require, that ?ne sh?ul(l trace step by step the alphabets and the synonymes of lan- guages, that we might accredit each nation with its due influence in the progress of intellectuality and the advancement of art and science. We 0 not now wish to trench on the field of philology.

There are, however, casual or artificial causes sympathetically stimu- a lng or depressing the functions of the brain; and others, above all, ucatmg the mind, and regulating and curbing the will of man; all exerting a potent influence over the psychical progress of nations. The habits, customs, manners, and amusements of a people depend somewhat on their temperament and capacity, and are constantly modi- by the nature of their locality.

Among the lower races, customs and amusements often approximate sely to the pursuits of their animals. The Ethiopians, and some of 10 Malays and Mongols, display in both extreme degradation. Their ‘‘“misernents are licentious and brutish, and their occupation a tissue of cruelties. The American is still an animal, but of a less ignoble nature “~~his habits, however, tend to degrade the mind and heart?his war lce aild his scalping inspire in his brain the most infuriated ecstasy; revenge and cruelty for ever rankle in his heart. Even the course of booing is stained by such an impetus; the affection and accomplishments ? a Wer being measured by the squaw according to the number of vic- lms he has scalped. The habits and amusements of the northern Mon- S?ls are marked by slothful luxury. The Esquimo, as he is a swinish feeler, lives in a sty, and maunders away his useless life. The mese Mongol is of course more refined and intellectual, but his sloth and sensual luxury must ever be a bar to high mental expansion. ^ Intercourse with more civilized nations may ameliorate the sensuality 0 these beings; but the innate propensities will not be subdued, especially if they have been encouraged in early life. We know the Unpressiveness of a tender mind, and how difficult it is to eradicate the ^ baneful example and tuition.

le Swiss boy has been bred to the mountains; the islander, to the ?Cean; their habits and their pastimes will of course be those of crags- ^en aU(l fishers. The amusements of the town-bred will be the theatre, fa 1 .C?ncer^’ ^’e debating-society, and the club-room; and society and iion wdl finish every one off as members of one great family. le pride of birth, rank, and wealth, however, steps in constantly to preent the law and course of Nature. This exclusiveness imparts a certain psychical character to classes at once to be recognised by an accurate observer esprit du corps, too, is often ridiculously influential in giving tone r’iincl. Every one appreciates, and often puffs over-mucli, the pursuit in which he is an enthusiast; underrating, often, pre-eminent talent engaged in other callings. The French dancing-master was astonished that Queen Anne had made Harley, Earl of Oxford; for he had thrown away two whole years on the dolt, and could not then teach him to dance.

New lights sometimes burst suddenly on a land, which at once meta- morphose the national mind. Thus, at the end of the fifteenth century, on the conquest of Constantinople, the Greek and Latin manuscripts deluged the western world. This, coupled with the ecclesiastical move- ment of the day, poured out a cornucopia of learning into Italy. Dante, and others under Cardinal Bembo, founded the classic school. NcW views of geography, thus imported, led to the doubling of the Cape, and the discovery of America.

The Reformation also altered the psychical character of Europe at once, by creating party, and that of the most determined nature: papacy and protestantism were the topics of the day. The religious prejudices of the reigns of Francis, of Charles V., of Henry VIII., of Mary, Eliza- beth, and the Stewarts, were the reigning spirit of the time. The one fulmination of the Pope against Luther was the bursting asunder of the psychical bondage, in which the Vatican had held the general mind. The essay of Milton may be considered almost as the first propounding of that principle which, by the detention of Hampden, and Pym, and Cromwell, in England, in the end established the Commonwealth. ” What great events from trivial causes spring.”

The memory and contemplation of genius and virtue,?the graven images of great men, as in the Ceramicum and the Valhalla,?the heroic poems, laudatory of valour,?all these have exerted much influence in elevating and ennobling the national mind. For emulation is not envy’ a noble mind aims at superiority, because it admires the excellence of a rival.

History and biography at once excite desire of imitation; even songs and common ballads, from the odes of Tyrtseus to the sea songs of Charles Dibdin, have inspired the hearts of a host of heroes. The stateman was shrewd who said, “Let me make the ballads of my country: I care not who makes her laws.” The prowess of Themistocles, the graphic force of Thucydides, and the eloquence of Demosthenes, werfe the result of their excited efforts to emulate Miltiades, Herodotus, and Callistrates. Although the subject may seem more physical than psychical, yet the sympathies of the stomach with the brain have a powerful influence on mind and character. A strong stomach?dura ilia messorum?is almost synonymous with success in our pursuits: a healthy digestion cannot be completed without a quiet and unstrained mind. So dyspepsia is a c?nstant penalty for psychical pre-eminence, and pays it off by tlie re- gion on its organ, too often in the end subduing its energy. The effort 0 study will ije often futile immediately after a full meal.

^ mis diet, if a fashion, may decide the character of a people: the osaic code of laws involves the strictest precepts on this point. The es of medicine, too, were prominent both in Egyptian and Hebrew station, and were consecrated as a religious injunction. ^ atever food is defective in its property of assimilation is, in varied grees, a poison. For if black or unhealthy blood be circulating ?ugh the brain, various forms of psychical derangement will be the Result. To some new properties imparted to the blood, we may often j^pute a change of temperament and disposition: the quality of the ^od must be congenial with the pursuits of the feeder, th 16 ^Pai^ans> *n obedience to one of the precepts of Lycurgus, and ? Romans, before the time of Pyrrhus, adopted a very spare but ^ esome diet,?they were, indeed, under a constant system of training, 0 that they were ever ready for active exertions. This austerity, Per laps, decided the action of Thermopylae.

is recorded of the Bosjesmen, that their character has been changed w*t1 their diet: when they led the life of wild shepherds, and fed on b??ts and larvae, their habits were passive and apathetic; when they ccjirne hunters and flesh-feeders, they also became ferocious and cruel. e ^rab, from his own confession, was also cruel and malicious, which } sicians assure us was the effect of feeding on camel’s flesh. The Tartar and the Cossack, who drink the blood of wild horses, and ^ ^ cannibal, who quaffs that of his fellow-men, are marked by pre- 01 y and brutal propensities. The Rajpoots, also, are very gross and Seiisual feeders, and their habits correspond.

_ e must, however, regard this with reservation. The Samoeids and Th ‘ arG a^S? ^lood-drinkers, are dull, sluggish, and slavish, tvell b!Ubber”eatinS ^s(lu”no *s an almost unintellectual sloth; his mind a blank. But these are Mongols of a low degree: while the butUjiese.’ Av^? drenches himself with tea, is also cruel and treacherous; e inhabits a warmer clime. Here we see organization and climate botli influential.

the Irish labourer, who feeds on potatoes and Avater, can endure een hours’ labour, and his pugnacious qualities, the effect of whiskey, “fcWwnly are not to he questioned U. ^le truth is, there is a concentrated energy in the process of assi- off hi10n *U be^nSs low intellect. There is no strain of mind to draw d ?? ^r?m ^1C ohylopoietic functions; so the animal force bears sway, Jr a high per-centage of nutriment is abstracted, as in the brute, j GU Columbus was in Cuba, he found the natives in a state of extreme c> ranee. A handful of maize or cassada bread was enough for a meal, so tliat tlie Spaniards, tlie most spare feeders in Europe, seemed to tliem like cormorants.

The modern Pythagoreans, yclept vegetarians, assure us that their bodily power is increased, and their intellectual faculties rendered lucid, energetic, and undisturbed, under their system. And we are reminded that the diet of the Greeks and Romans, in their palmy days, was chiefly vegetable; but then that character did not change when they adopted animal food. As man is carnivorous, however, and constantly doomed to migrate, he can feed with impunity on the productions of every clime, lie therefore wisely adopts a mixed dietetic rule, to suit himself to the torrid zone, in which the extensive consumption of flesh food is precluded by the rapid decomposition of animal fibre; and to the northern lati- tudes, in which the scantiness of vegetation reduces the inhabitants to diet of more gross and unctuous nature.

We cannot therefore impute an important psychical influence to diet, so long as the system is not physically disordered.

The imbibition of alcoholic liquors, however, comes under a very different category. Ben Jonson’s Canary, and Sheridan’s Burgundy, as well as Coleridge’s opium, for a time inspired their intellect, we are told, but it might have produced more golden fruit without them. We are not aware of any peculiar people, who, as a nation, are topers; yet Tacitus does refer to the custom of very free drinking among the ancient Germans, who quaffed strong drink even to the manes of departed friends. The abuse of opium exerts a very baneful psychical influence. The full or elysian dose is totally subductive of mental integrity; life is a baseless vision that does ‘ leave a Avreck behind.’

Those who have witnessed the slaves of the habit, in the divans of Constantinople,?for here the vice is a national one,?will not forget the pictures of psychical derangement?of mental annihilation. From these narcotized Orientals, therefore, we can expect no fruits of intellect. Their field of literature is well-nigh a desert; while they have often been made the slaves of those northern conquerors, whose degree of natural intellect was far beneath their own.

The Christian, who knows that his life is one of probationary denial, does not thus fall into the pit by wholesale. The whole life of the Moslem; however, is one voluptuous dream?his heaven, the end for which he also lives, is the paradise of harlots. But more than all does legislation influence and mark the progress of mind, as it is the bond that unites a community. The first law was a divine injunction. Religion taught by the tables of Moses Avas the basis of all subsequent legislation. To love God was the first great law; to love our neighbour, the second.

If these laws were carried out to the letter, pure philanthropy would j^C ^le fading spirit of tlie time : art and science would be secondary; 01 self-interest, tlie most potent stimulus to exertion and invention, Would be wanting. The age of gold would be established without gold eing thought of. Mind would be eclipsed by heart; and intellect, as ^egards its deepest study and its loftiest flights, would lie dormant and ?w. But insanity would be a most rare phenomenon; for its essence 0 consists in over-working of the mind.

. ^is, however, is an Utopian vision. Religion is prone to degenerate lVlL r … OA o fanaticism and superstition, legislation into despotic and selfish b^ernment, and liberty dies when she degenerates into licentiousness rebellion. Hence the various shades of psychical derangement, even ^sanity on religious points. Not that religion creates insanity (a com- mon error among pseudo-psychologists), but that the excited brain is ed to its real truths by an ignis fatuus. It is when religion and law are thus set at naught that the most ex- _ niary psychical phenomena are elicited; the motives of human Action being self-gratification and not God’s law. Of this truth the uge and Babel, and Sodom and Nineveh, are historic records. The revolutions of false religion are less overwhelming and violent lan those of the State, but they are not less in perverting the consti- ution of the mind. ^ e need but to look on the idolatry and licentiousness of the heathen Nations, and on the grovelling propensities of the slave, to be sensible ?f the benignant influence of Christianity and good government. The earlier inhabitants of the world were without this light, when the posterity of Seth, proud of their alliance with the women-angels, com- **utted their heinous crimes; the flood came, and a new race, chiefly of ^Syrians, Chaldseans, and Hebrews, arose from the sons of Noah. Us pride of birth destroyed the first people; pride of wealth the Sccond?the full penalty paid for all their psychical debasement. ^ Among the ancient theists and polytlieists, ere the light of revelation ?ained abroad, the systems of ethics may indeed have evinced a high “lenient of intellect, and the wise men of Athens and of Rome, the arned pundits of Benares, the Peruvian incas, the Mexican caciques, ^}} even the skalds of the Hyperborean seas, evolved their various ‘e>hts of very ingenious mythology. Of their legislation, the codes of roaster, Lycurgus, Solon, and Justinian, are on record. Even among iese heathen moralists we certainly learn of high examples of heroic -rtue and sacrifice. Yice was distinguished from virtue, and the oj, lens> eyen those of the wild races, were impressed with the vision ? ^ie Judgment. But truth was yet unrevealed, and the intellectual j V? 10n> without the light of Christian influence, was perilous almost 11 ie direct ratio of its intensity?its children being the spoiler, the sceptic, and tlie refined voluptuary. Hence, with all this seeming virtue, the mind was absolutely enslaved to vice.

The archives in the temples of heathen Greece, and the pagodas of the Brahmins, were, it is true, enriched by rolls of disquisitions on the distinction between virtue and vice, and their choultries thickly scattered over their land for the reception of the wayfarer. But the virtues of the Stoics were recorded in blood; suicide was deemed the acme of magnanimity, and a dying gladiator was looked on with a degree of heated enthusiasm, only exceeded by that which her Majesty of Spain displays when a bull rips up the belly of a tauridor. The suicide of the Stoics was a murder?-felo-de-se?differing from the majority of suicides among the Christians. The effect of the first was to prevent insanity?so rare a malady among the heathen; that of the second is, we believe, almost invariably the result of a degree of madness?the result of those sensations from which the Stoic would release himself by plunging cold steel into his thorax.

As a type of the inconsistencies of a Budhist pagan, we read in the Baglivat Geeta this sublime sentence: ” The man is praised who, having subdued all his passions, performetn with his active faculties all the functions of life, unconcerned about the event.” With all this fine morality the abominations of their priesthood were almost incredible; and indeed it is probable that we do not yet know all the crimes com- mitted behind the mysterious veils of their gorgeous but polluted temples. The isolation of the Chinese, a nation of sceptics, conceals from us many crimes of which we implicitly believe them guilty. In. Thibet, the custom of polyandry, or community of husbands, indicates little modesty in her daughters. Yice must of necessity be predo- minant in those heathen lands, where the attributes of the Olympic gods and of the idols of the Hindu temples are in the lowest degree licentious and disgusting, and the possession of every vice as it were deified?the base example of the gods consecrating the deeds of their worshippers. We cannot, therefore, believe the account of Marco Polo, that the high Asiatic Mongols and Tatters were chaste to a degree from the influence of their religion, half Christianity, or Shahmanisru. The slavery of this people to the priesthood was equal to that of the low papists at the present time. The Soodar was directly put to death if he but opened the sacred books of the Vedas, as the low Irish suffer a moral death when they are debarred from the life of the Gospel- The bondage of a false religion is ever wofully detrimental to the progress of intellect, charity being its purest and its noblest mani- festation, whether it be of the pagan or Jesuitical idolater. The blasphemous sensuality of the Hindu temple, the blind and mad sacrifice of Juggernaut, the Sutti, the murder of the innocents, i. e- female infanticide of Rajpoot, practised at this very hour, and the ^urders of the Inquisition, as they are utterly void of charity, the only Vlrtue that can complete the sanctifieation of a people, must be a fatal error.

To what maniacal enormities has it not given origin, especially in le e^eventh, thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The Yokels, the Fakirs, le flagellants?Jewish, Catholic, and Protestant persecutions without dumber, merely because one believed himself right, and therefore all others wrong, forgetting that there may be two rights, according to the ??nscience of a creature. In modern Spain, Portugal, and Italy, the intellect, as a rule, is in a state of apathetic slumber. In France there are a few exalted and leading spirits; the mass presents a painful c?ntrast. Yet Mahomet has been even a greater enemy to psychical im- provement than Loyola ; the Arabs, once enlightened in art and science, windled and decayed under the blight of Islamism. But though the . ls^ered priest must be ever a bigoted book-worm, yet perhaps Jesuitism effected some counterbalancing good, by inciting our Pro- an^ colleges to greater exertion?even as the present pontiff, by ls late appointment, will minister, we hope, to the purification of the nglican Church, and tend to ensure that Christian benevolence Ue’1 springs alone from pure and lioly motives. Else were that standard of excellence vain, which cast down the degraded idols and 1 tars of paganism, and, instead of the mythological creations of a Prurient imagination, established divine truth, a truth which has lightened even the barbarian, if humility has predisposed him, for ?Se Laps and Fins who immediately bordered on Russia and Sweden embraced the Christian faith.

ut the national mind is too often a proud spirit. The pride of sect is f … s *ar more detrimental than the pride of birth or wealth, for it ^?odemns nine hundred and ninety-nine out of every thousand of the U^?an race: an(l yet this is termed religion.

illu - 6 ^ristian faith, as it has been desecrated often by national to T?U5 ^aS ?^en> though failing of its primal object, given character pe, 1G sPlr^t of a people. The crusade, for instance, ” the first Euro- event,” as Guizot terms it, tended to expand the national mind of Gr? ?urope by travel in other lands, and by the accrediting of ssies from Christians to Pagan courts, and by the incitement to scovery. The history of the crusades first roused the curiosity of afC0 and, through his marvellous stories, of Columbus. A ~ j-I ? ‘ of }> martial glories of pagan Greece and Rome were the subjects To r .^von(lrous epics, so were the crusades the spring of our later v , lc poesy. The adventures of the holy Avars have been sung e poets, from Tasso to Scott: and as English, French, German, Italian, Spanish, all took part in the martial pilgrimage, a tinge of the romantic was directly given to the literature of those lands, and the poet has consoled himself for the failure of the three great expeditions for the elevation of the Cross.

The second great European event that sprang from a devotional source?the Reformation?metamorphosed for a time the national mind. “YYickliffe, Luther, Zwingle, Huss, were the topic of their day, and the pen was engrossed Avitli doctrinal theology, and a purer religion Avas adopted, although during the onset the flames of the Inquisition certainly rose the higher.

In Germany, France, and England, even to the reign of William the Third (Ave may to a degree add, to our oAvn day), sectarian theology gave a colour to the psychical character of those countries. In burnings and bloodshed, and the thirty years’ Avar, the minds both of Catholics and Protestants Avere equally bigoted, and the Avritings of Spinosa and Socinius tended as much to sap theology as the doctrines of Pyrrho himself.

If Ave reflect on cosmogony, Ave find that the religion and theology of a nation Avere often intimately connected Avitli its government. Religion has not only characterized a nation already established, but it lias been the origin of a new state. In the reign of Elizabeth a handful of puritans Avandering from England to Holland, and thence to Massachusetts and Connecticut, founded those states, and established that one religion which noAv prevails throughout the Transatlantic Union.

The principle of church and state is of high antiquity. The patriarchs Avere both the kings and priests of their family. Moses and Aaron Avere the joint rulers of the state. In ancient India, lioAveArer, the Brahmin Avas even of the first caste, the monarch of the second; and this Brahmin, like our chancellor, Avas the conscience-keeper of his sovereign.

The national mind Avas thus especially prone to take its hue from the example or character of its rulers: just as it folIoAvs a fashion set by a great personage; or as the students stained their faces yellow that they might resemble their master.

Moses, Lycurgus, Ptolemy Philadelphus, Pericles, Justinian, Ackber, Alfred, Peter, Napoleon, all imparted their oavu great conceptions to the national mind, and even to neighbouring nations. 80? enlightened, indeed, Aras the reign of Ackber, that even the Greek sophs went to India purposely to converse Avitli the pundits of the holy city of Benares: and as Robertson has hinted, perhaps the stoic school may have had its spring from the notions thus imparted to Zeno and Epictetus. The Peruvians, Avho had from very high antiquity continued ^ statu quo, were speedily formed into a government by the genius of auca Capac, the first Inca.

Hence emanates a passion for learning throughout a state. And , ls especially, if the one great mind he a patron of art and science. To ecasnas, Pericles, the Medici, are we indebted for many of those SP endours which still delight the eye and the understanding of the Ayor Id. “Were such minds in constant succession we may believe to . a degree of perfection the psychical condition of nations would arrive.

^ But let us take the contrast of these bright pictures?the worst ni of government, probably, of which we possess a record, that of * 11 ey Isrnael, of Morocco. They must be degraded slaves indeed ?> after he had killed forty thousand of his subjects with his own 1 -barefooted and trembling, and bowing to the ground, screamed ^reat is the wisdom of our lord ! the voice of our lord is like the Voic*e of an angel from heaven.”

xth the contrasts of the psychical effects of servility and freedom . ,a c?untry, history abounds, not only regarding the happiness and Utilization, but the intellect of a people. In the one state Ave may > perchance, a few leading minds, meteors that blaze for awhile 1IU(^ a host of slaves; in the other, science is spread abroad, and as a rule, remunerated ad valorem.

11 Russia, for instance, the bondage of the serfs causes the manifesto- es of intellect to be very low and rare indeed.

^ In the servility of rebellion (the rebel despot being the most cruel ? all the slaves of power) the intellect of a people must of necessity C0lUe degraded, and degenerate into a national monomania. They la^ C1’*n?e aiK^ how awhile to their idol, until the crushing of his iron causes the worm to turn and sting the tyrant to death. Then ‘orne.-i the reign of anarchy. The republican mind will be too much th *U P?^^ca^ disquisition, or intestine warfare, to even dream of se pursuits which enlighten the mind and soften and amend the heart.

rr|^u^ even legitimate warfare, as it is termed, is too often the vain- .? ^ a nation, to the blighting of its psychical progress ; although it ^ true many illustrious men are deeply associated with war, but they ^eeiued it a necessity, not a glory. Fabricius, Cincinnatus, p Ungton, grasped not an imperial crown, like the first Consul of andT^ an^ ^iere^01’e they are glorified while Napoleon was reviled -SJed- The history of a nation, therefore, is too often a history of tl * G’ ^1G Mongol dynasty, perhaps, excepted. With the American, nopian, and the Malay, war is a passion, the indulgence of male- GUt revenge. There is no quarter; for they fight to kill, not to conquer; the prisoner of Avar is not immured and exchanged, but scalped. If wounded, like the Ferae, they tear the weapon from their flesh, as Herera and others report, and break the shaft and dash it with execrations on the ground. Their victories are the result chiefly of stratagem, or a sort of instinctive cunning, aided by the acuteness of their physical sense. They have, it is true, a sort of discretion, for they run aivay if they are likely to be worsted. In this too they resemble the Ferse, as they do indeed even in their feeding, after which they are apathetic, but when hungry or aroused they then play the tiger.

With the Caucasian (the Iapetidte) war is a science, a system. We see the plan of a battle, the co-operation of forces?a word, which in itself implies civilization, and advance of psychical capacity. The first grand step of the Romans was in arms, especially after the fall of the Tarquins, when the annual elections kept the leaders on the qui vive; and in the wars with Pyrrlius, especially as the consulship and ovations were the guerdon of military prowess.

From the earliest sera the mind of man has run wild upon invasion? and he has jumbled together religion and wholesale murders, making the former the pretext for the latter; the common psychical development was desire of conquest. The holy wars of the Crusades?the con- quests of Mahomet, the three changes of dynasty in Constantinople, were some of the monomaniacal illusions which from time to time have controlled and metamorphosed the psychology of the world.

And such was its psychical influence, that the peace of war became the pastime of the nobility?especially after Philip the First of France, in the lofty spirit of chivalry, established the joiite and the tournoi. But contention on a field is the grave of intellectuality. Even the sgavans of Napoleon, with all their boasted researches in Egypt, came meagre off?if we except Denon, and he would have done better in peace; and Larrey, who threw some light on military surgery?but even that is a poor compensation for the loss of legs and arms and lives. What lesson may we learn, then, from our brief psychical survey of the globe 1 That intellect is vain if we promote not the moral happi’ ness of man. He should have but one idol?his Maker; but one motive?a Christian spirit of benevolence.

We cannot hope, of course, for a community of taste in art and science, but Ave may hope that the foreshadowed national intercom- munication will ensure a bond of sympathetic interest between the four quarters of the globe, if it do not in the end establish an Utopia of the universal mind.

Disclaimer

The historical material in this project falls into one of three categories for clearances and permissions:

1. Material currently under copyright, made available with a Creative Commons license chosen by the publisher.

2. Material that is in the public domain

3. Material identified by the Welcome Trust as an Orphan Work, made available with a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.

While we are in the process of adding metadata to the articles, please check the article at its original source for specific copyrights.

See https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/about/scanning/