The Localisation of the Functions of the Brain
252 Art. IV.? :Author: James George Davey, M.D., Member of the Royal College of Physicians, London, &c., &c.*
It is a source of congratulation to psychologists that recent experimenters have turned their attention to the physiology of the brain. The localisation of its several functions is of the first importance, and to this end the labours of Fritsch, Hitzig, and Ferrier are eminently tending. How far these gentlemen may have been stimulated in their work by the late Dr Wigan, who wrote, in 1843, on ” Duality of the Mind,” we may not know. It is certain, however, that he it was who in this present generation sought, in a well marked and especial manner, to counteract the too general tendency to regard the mind?so to put it?as a simple and undecomposable unit. In 1846 Dr. Carpenter came out very strong as a cerebral physiologist; his published opinions go farther than those of Wigan, inasmuch as he claims for the brain a something more than a mere dual function. The two halves or hemispheres of the brain are deemed by Carpenter as plainly insufficient for the complex offices of the cerebrum, in its entirety; and to cover what he considers wanting, he claims for the grey matter forming the floors of the lateral ventricles, the duty of presiding over and ministering to the many active emotions of our common nature; whilst to the superficies of the cortical structure?the grey matter of the convolutions of the whole cerebral mass?he refers especially the intellectual capacities of man and the higher animals. Wigan may be said to stand in relation to Carpenter as the latter named stands in relation to Ferrier. I venture to add, in opposition to the too generally received opinion, that Drs. Wigan and Carpenter are much behind their time, and farther, that even Dr Ferrier is a long way from being abreast with the latest discoveries in mental science. That cerebral physiologists have come and gone, in comparison with whom the three gentlemen named above are seen in the far off background of free thought, or rather, progress, I shall hope to make apparent in this paper. To say nothing of ” uncon- scious cerebration,” which Dr Carpenter has made very much his own, both the dual function of the brain and not less its plural functions, have been long taught and accepted by many as among the very fundamental truths in medical science. Haller and Bichat taught the duality of the mind long years before Wigan, and Grail and Spurzheim demonstrated the great and imperishable truths of phrenology, i.e. the localisation of the functions of the cerebrum, before Dr Ferrier drew breath. Honour, all honour, to whom such ” localisation ” is due. That soldier who steps first into the breach, who puts himself into the closest contact with danger for his country’s good, and in view of the success of a righteous cause, claims the first recog- nition and the highest rewards from the people. They who follow him will ever bow to his supremacy, and echo his fair and due praise.
I had the pleasure, when at Norwich, in August 1874, to listen to the address given by Dr Ferrier, on ” The Localisation of the Functions of the Brain.” Whilst acknowledging the general ability and earnestness of the speech or address named, I could not but be struck with what I am bound to call the incomplete and unsatisfactory manner in which the whole sub- ject was left. Nothing to my mind is more certain than that physiologists are, in no small degree, adrift as to the real sig- nificance of the varied phenomena elicited by the experiments of Dr Ferrier. The application of stimuli to portions of the cerebral surface beget, as a matter of necessity, certain and defined muscular movements ; but such are no kind of proof that a centre or source of a mere motive power has been reached or excited to action. The ” movements ” observed are, to all intents and purposes, due to another cause; and that other.; a psychical or mental one. Neither Carpenter nor Ferrier incline as they should to this opinion; and the first named would seem to reject the bare idea of such being the fact. In the recently published volume of ” Medical Reports ” of the West Riding Lunatic Asylum, it is affirmed by Carpenter, when treating on “aphasia” in connection with the faradisation of the cortical substance in man stupefied by chloroform, that the ” causative relation between the physical and psychical states is doubtful, and that a careful examination of the phe- nomena observed must leave us very much in the dark.” But if when Dr Ferrier applies, which he does, a galvanic current to the cortical surfaces of the organs of the several instincts?for example, to those which prompt us “to take food,” “to seize prey,” ” to destroy,” ” to fight,” or ” to constructand if then movements ” of mastication,” ” of striking with the claws, or seizing with the mouth,” ” of biting and worrying,” ” of scraping or digging” ensue, it is plainly manifest that such movements are nothing more nor less than so many outward signs of an internal and mental condition of being, artificially induced. It is nevertheless true that the innate or subjective faculties of the mind, which ever and anon require the aid or co-operation pf the muscular system to carry out their behests, do, under certain other and objective circumstances or environments, originate the several movements here named: the stimuli to cerebral action, though unlike each other, yielding not unlike, and it may be some similar results. To put the matter fairly, an experimenter applies a stimulus of a certain kind, either directly or indirectly : directly it may be, by the aid of faradi- sation to parts of the cortex or grey matter of the brain, or indirectly, to the same structure through the instrumentality of one or more of the external senses?the sense of sight, or touch, or sound, and so on. Now such stimulus, when brought to bear on or?what is the same thing?made so as to reach specific regions or organs of the cerebrum in man and animals, regions or organs (as I prefer to designate such) which, bear in mind, are each of them endowed with well-defined and original (ele- mentary) powers or qualities of an undoubted psychical nature, create or cause a certain and immediate shock, a structural change in the relation of the cell corpuscles (the nerve globules) entering into the formation of, or composing, such several regions or organs; and this (shock) it is which begets what Dr. Carpenter very aptly calls the ” physical antecedents ” of suc- ceeding mental phenomena; and so it is we get at the required explanation of the several facts or outward signs of an internal and mental state, as such are stated above to have been made manifest to Dr Ferrier.
I have little doubt that Dr Ferrier, though to this time unlearned?to all appearance?in regard to the very able and significant discoveries of Grail, is even now on the right road, and will one day be found in close harmony with the phrenolo- gical doctrine. It is said of him that ” in one case he was so impressed by the intelligent character of the successive actions elicited by his experiments, as to speak of it as an evidently acted dream” This remark I am disposed to regard as a first step towards the recognition of the ” localisation of the functions of the brain,” as accepted and taught by the followers of the great man (Grail) here named to you.
It occurs to me that by calling your attention to the admir- able drawings to be found in the ” Anatomy of Expression,” by the late Sir C. Bell, I shall serve well the cause I have in hand this evening. Here we see portrayed the many muscles of the face. The several facial organs?the mouth, nose, eyes, etc.? are seen embedded, as it were, in muscular fibres. The smallest contraction of either one is reflected in the individual, impart- ing to the visage a corresponding change of expression. The muscular arrangement shown may be said to constitute ” a provision for that mode of communication, and that very natural language which may be read in the changes of the THE LOCALISATION OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE BRAIN. 255 countenance, and to reflect or exhibit, by appropriate signs or movements, each emotion or feeling taking place in the mind.” Sir C. Bell has gone so far as to affirm that there are even muscles in the human face to which no other use can be as- signed than to serve as aids to such natural language. See this picture of rage. How strongly marked is the action of the facial muscles ! The acute tension or fixity of the corrugator supercilii, as well as of the muscles about the lips and nostrils, gives to the countenance an expression of extreme force and energy, an intense mingling of human thought and emotion, with the savage and brutal rage of the mere animal. Now what does all this mean ? Movements such as these in- dicated must have a source. Muscular contractions of this character can emanate or spring but from intense and painful mental excitement. If in walking the street we meet a man at all like this picture, we know, as it were by instinct, that he is much enraged, and under the influence of a deeply ruffled tem- per. Could we see as plainly the inward as the outer man, could we see the workings of his brain, the precise organic con- dition of its cortex or grey medullary matter, we should be assured of, not only its general excess of action, but of the very morbid sensibility of certain of its parts, or ” organs,” as I prefer to call such.
Assuming the truth and force of the effects of a local stimulus on the portions of brain in the monkey operated on by Dr Ferrier ; accepting, as I do, most readily, the facts elicited ?viz. the striking out of the anterior extremities, the active motions of the jaws and lips, and so on?what other inference can be drawn than that this picture of the raging man, includ- ing him we are supposed to have met in the street, as well as of the half poisoned and electrified monkey, do but represent or portray identical psychical conditions of being; and that to the same only can the compound and forcibly expressed muscular movements be referred. Bear in mind that the part of the brain of the monkey ” faradised ” was in the near neighbourhood of the ear, i.e. above and behind it: mother words, close to the organs of Combcitiveness and Destructiveness?to employ the language of the phrenological school.
The picture I show you now is expressive of Terror. The terrible muscular action seen is plainly the outcome of great mental pain. How else could such an expression be evolved or begotten ? To this subject we may well, and with much felicity, apply these lines from Spenser:? He answered naught at all; but adding new Fear to his first amazement, staring wide, With stony eyes and heartless hollow hue, 256 TIIE LOCALISATION OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE BRAIN. Astonished stood as one that had espied Infernal furies with their chains untied, And trembling, every joint did inly quake, And falt’ring tongue at last these words Seemed forth to shake.?Faery Queen. As a fine contrast, one full of natural beauty, let me call your attention to this one, as copied from Bell’s work on ex- pression. In it we look in vain for acute muscular action. We may seek, but to find is not possible, the fast working of the features, the movements incidental to the lower, the worldly passions. The placid calmness in the features, the reverent attention, the elevation of thought, speak eloquently the psychical life animating the individual. The good and holy feelings dominating the mind are but the outcome of stimuli, objective or subjective, acting on certain of the convolutions of the brain in him imagined?that is to say, on those portions or ” organs ” known to preside over and to determine the measure or the force of the several primitive faculties or mental qualities known as “Benevolence,” “Veneration,” “Conscientiousness,” and so on.
To many in this room it may seem strange that one of Dr. Carpenter’s great and untiring industry and well-deserved emi- nence as a writer on medical science, should within even a few weeks have written thus: ” It was until lately the current doctrine of physiology, that no stimulation of the cerebrum would excite either sensation or motion.” The converse of this, he asserts, “was first ascertained by Hitzig in 1870.” To my own senses, these assertions seem strange indeed; for in 1842 I was for some successive weeks engaged with others, to be named presently, on a series of experiments which went to demonstrate in the most decided and unequivocal manner that the stimulation of many different parts of the cerebrum of man did excite both sensation and motion. I affirm, with no kind of fear for the consequences to science or to myself, that twenty-eight long years before Hitzig ascertained and taught the fact as stated, the same was well known to the late Dr. Elliotson, to the late Dr Engledue, and to Messrs. Atkinson and Syme of London, including others who may be nameless. I am old enough to remember well the outbursts of envy and passion with which the medical journals long years since treated one of the most laborious and painstaking physicians of that time. It is not now, as it was then, so really dangerous to announce the discovery of things new and strange. The present age is, we will hope, less illiberal than I knew and even felt it to be at the time referred to. Drs. Hitzig and Ferrier would not now be reaping the happy harvest of their very commendable labours if things were not now altered for the better; but, like Lawrence in 1816 (about) and Elliotson in 1840 and subse- quently, they would be now the objects of ridicule and abuse, It has been well said that ” truth is violated by falsehoods ; ” but let me ask, is it not ” equally outraged by silence ? ” If this be so, it becomes us to speak out and be silent no longer. Well, then, Mr. President, let me claim your indulgence whilst I, in view of the necessary completeness of my remarks, in- troduce to your attention the once forbidden subject of Mes- merism, so termed, after one named Mesmer. My purpose is to convince you that with its aid the localisation of the several functions of the brain in man, as discovered by Gall, has been already confirmed by a series of experiments of the most decided character: that is to say, that the stimulation of, for example, the organs of ” Combativeness,” of ” Con- structiveness,” of ” Acquisitiveness,” of ” Secretiveness,” of ” Self-esteem,” etc., etc., has resulted in movements of the most extraordinary and convincing character, i.e. in the outward and visible expression of internal or psychical states, and that these?viz. the outward expression and the mental states?have manifestly stood in the closest relation to each other as parts of one whole, phases of a single phenomenon. To put the fact in the fewest words, the natural language of Combativeness, as of Veneration, of Constructiveness and Self-esteem, etc., has been already evoked by the application of local stimuli. The fact Dr Ferrier may without doubt make much of and utilise to no small extent. Now, under a certain and exceptional con- dition of the great nerve centres, a change is brought about in the degree of force or susceptibility of parts of the brain; such ” condition ” realises, in fact, the mesmeric sleep or trance. In this state of being it was discovered by an American physician (whose name I forget), and by Messrs. Gardiner, Mansfield and Atkinson, that it was possible to excite into action any portion of the brain, and to arrest any portion already in action, by touching the part, and in some instances by only pointing to it, and by other means : so that, in numerous in- stances he (Mr. Atkinson) ” could play upon the head,” to use the figurative language employed by him, and produce what actions he pleased, just as distinctly as you play upon the keys of the piano. The clearness of the response, it is stated, is dependent on the condition of the person experimented on. In some cases only a few parts of the cerebral mass are found sus- ceptible ; in others many more, or even the whole brain. ” In rare instances,” we are assured ” that the mere pressure of in- animate substances will excite the action of the cerebral organs, and that this same action will be made manifest by positive and well-defined muscular movements, giving rise to expressions indicative of, it may be, anger, or fear, or pride, or veneration; and so on through the several primitive faculties of the human mind.
But to realise the importance and value of the above dis- covery, it must be borne in mind that to it we are indebted for a proof, at once tangible and conclusive, of the great value of the teachings of Grail and Spurzheim. The correctness of their localisation of the functions of the brain becomes at once so plainly demonstrated that the non-acceptance of phrenology is next to impossible. However, as I have written elsewhere, ” the difficulties of unlearning are great,” and, as it would appear insurmountable, to even many men of the highest order of mind. This fact will I doubt not in after times be classed among the hallucinations of men of genius.
The same discovery is interesting as marking the close relationship between mental science and the painter’s art. Thus one of the veiy first persons to duly note the practical bearing of the labours and discoveries of Grardiner, Mansfield, and Atkinson, was the late Mr. Uwins, R.A. On January 16, 1843, this gentleman read before the London Phrenological Society, an admirable paper on the ” Effects of Mesmerism upon various parts or ‘ Organs’ of the Brain in Man,” and in the report of this paper in the Zoist the following passage occurs:?
Mr. Uwins, having heard of results obtained from patients in the sleep-walking state, confirmatory of phrenological facts, determined to test the truth of them. Mr. Joseph, the eminent sculptor and a pro- found phrenologist, was present at the first experiment. To prevent the possibility of deception, Mr. Joseph wrote on paper the organs he wished to have acted upon in succession. We began, said the author, with Ideality and Wonder : exclamations of admiration accompanied by the most expressive and appropriate actions, immediately followed the application of my fingers to those portions of the brain. ” How beau- tiful ! ” ” What a delicious place ! ” ” It is like the happy valley in Rasselas ! ” ” Where are the people going?” I said, ‘’What is it you see ? ” ” Oh, look, look ! ” She repeated, ‘* There, there : look how finely they are dressed! They are going to dance : I’ll have a jig with them ;” and she began beating time as if she were about starting off in a dance ; when suddenly she said, ” Oh no, I’ll go in the boat. Oh, what a beautiful lake! ” I now put my finger on Cautiousness. She instantly drew back with the most marked expression of fear, and seizing me by the arm, said in an under tone, ” Come?come away.” ” What, are you afraid of us?” I said. “Do you not see,” she replied, still in a lower tone, ” They are following us ? They will do us some mischief.” ” Don’t fear,” I said, ” I’ll fight them off.” ” No, no, no” (she still held my arm and whispered in my ear)’: do not strike them, they will hire somebody to murder you for five shillings. Come away, come away.” Mr. Joseph’s course now led to my removing the finger from Cautiousness to Self-esteem, still keeping the thumb as be- fore on Ideality. I had scarcely touched this organ when she drew herself up (she was before crouching under the influence of fear), raised her head very high, and said in an under and reserved tone, though with an expression of cunning satisfaction, ” They are actually bowing to me ; the}’ think me a person of consequence, and indeed I think myself quite as good as any of them ! ” She then stood up and made some formal patronising curtseys to the right and left, varying her assumed and stately demeanour till I broke the charm by removing my fingers from the organs, which left her as usual stretching out her hand in darkness and vacancy. Mr. Joseph’s next instructions were ” Philoprogenitiveness.” The patient immediately put on the most winning smiles, and seemed by her actions to be courting children to come to her. ” Oh, the dear little creatures !” she exclaimed, ” Come, come.” At length she seemed to have caught one in her arms, which she hugged with the most ecstatic delight. ” Look,” she said, ” what a dear little angel!” I asked if it was her own, but repented the ques- tion as soon as it had escaped my lips. She sank back in her chair, and said with a deep sigh, ” No, my home is never to be so blessed.” I shall never forget the scene. Mr. Joseph appeared affected almost to tears. As I still kept my fingers on the organ, she soon resumed her pleasurable feelings, and seemed again to be fondling a baby in her arms. Mr. Joseph now wished me to carry my thumbs on both sides of the head to the organs of Destructiveness. Instantly she threw the child away, and began tearing and raving with a fiend-like fury. I said, ” Surely you are not going to kill the child? ” She replied, ” I could kill it?a little ugly devil ! I could tear it in pieces,” she continued, using the utmost violence with her hands, as if she would destroy everything within her reach. I went now to Benevolence. The change was delightful. She smiled and seemed by her actions to be surrounded by objects agreeable to her. I asked Avhat it was that gave her so much pleasure. ” Don’t you see,” she said : ” here are all my kind friends; it is indeed a pleasure to be surrounded by so many kind friends.” She continued her smiles of recognition from one to the other, and named some persons from whom I knew she had received kindness. At Mr. Joseph’s request I now touched on Combativeness. She instantly began squaring with her fists like a boxer. I said, ” Surely you are not going to fight ? ” She replied, “1 do not know what I may do with provocation.” ” Oh, nonsense,” I said. ” Not such nonsense, neither,” she replied; ” I can strike a hard blow ; I do not think you would like to take as many blows as I could give you; ” she still kept her hostile action of defiance. From Combativeness I went to Conscientiousness. She instantly dropped her hands and as- sumed an expression of self-accusation ; she did not speak or move, but seemed absorbed in reflection. By Mr. Joseph’s desire, I moved my fingers to Veneration, when her face assumed a sainted expression of devotion, and bending her body a little forwards, she clasped her hands in the attitude of prayer. Music was the last organ touched. She began beating time as if listening to some instrument or voice. I said, ” What is it ? ” ” Do you not hear ? Listen : it is my favourite tune, ‘ Woodman, spare that tree !’ My husband plays it. Be still: listen.” All this was accompanied by gestures indicative of the pleasure the music gave her.*
Well may it be said, ” a new impulse has been given to enquiry ; the field of investigation is widening before us.” No doubt the facts stated will surprise some here; neverthe- less, they are true. This I venture to state most unequivocally, having seen many of them, and tested not a few. As good evi- dence of this, let me here refer you to the Medical Times of 1842 or 1843. Therein is an article of mine entitled “Phre- nology and Insanity,” containing my first impressions?my very earliest experience?in regard to ” Mesmero-jphrenology ” so called.
But there is no real need to go back so far for an assurance that parts of the cortical substance, the psychical base, or first starting point, of mind, in all its phases, are affected by local stimuli of the kind above named, or are so highly sensitive as to furnish to the experimenter palpable and various muscular movements involving responsive changes in the ” expression,*’ the outcome of the temporary and dominant mental life, and so on; for in the early part of 1874 Mr. Serjeant Cox (one of our most eminent judges) published the second volume of his “Popular Mental Philosophy.” In this book he treats of the mechanism of action of the brain and its parts; and if you look to chapter 13, page 172, et seq., you will find thus described the mental phenomena which attend on artificial somnambulism.
The next series of phenomena is equally curious and interesting, and it is very difficult to suggest a satisfactory explanation of them. Strange as they may appear, of their occurrence no doubt will be enter- tained by any person who has ever experimented with somnambules. I will describe them as briefly as I can.
When the patient has passed from the sleep-like condition into what appears to he an active existence, although he is unconscious and insensible, you can, by touching his head lightly with the finger, excite the brain to action in almost any manner you will. Place your finger upon the spot to which the phrenologists have assigned the faculty of Mirth, and speedily the patient breaks into a fit of laughter. Place another finger upon the supposed site of the faculty of Tune, and he shouts a comic song. Change the touch to Veneration, and instantly he assumes the expression of profoundest piety, kneels, prays, or takes an attitude of devotion. Continuing the finger on Music also, he sings a hymn. Change to Combativeness, and he fights so furiously that it is dangerous to approach him. But while he is most fierce, touch Bene- volence, and the lifted arm drops and the passionate face assumes a placid and almost loving expression. Touch Ideality and Language, and he will describe such grand visions as only De Quincey, the opium- eater, lias depicted. Lay the finger on Language and your hand upon his forehead, he will make a speech to an ideal audience. Touch Hope, and you see the attitude and expression of ecstacy. Touch Adhesiveness, and he will cling to you with every show of devoted affection. In this manner all the mental faculties and emotions may be called into action as certainly and almost as rapidly as the notes can be struck upon a pianoforte. So marked are the expressions of various mental actions, that the most ignorant observer cannot fail to know what faculty it is that is being influenced at the moment.
Nor is the effect limited to the actions of separate faculties. They can be combined to produce combined expressions. Music and Mirth, or Music and Veneration, thus excited at the same time, elicit a comic song or a hymn accordingly. Veneration and Ideality stimulated to- gether, are shown in an exquisite expression of devotion and sometimes of actual worship, as if the somnambule had a vision of angels. The combinations may be indefinitely varied by an intelligent operator, and the consequent motions and expressions of the body, as thus stirred by the brain, will exhibit the combined results of the associated faculties so called into action.
It is not the least remarkable part of these phenomena that the influence exists only so long as the finger touches the asserted site of the faculty. It ceases instantly on the touch being transferred to another organ. If, for instance, you touch Music and Mirth and the patient sings a comic song, in the midst of a bar of the comic air transfer the finger from Mirth to Veneration, still keeping the other finger on Music, and instantly the comic song is stopped, even at a half-note, and the patient commences a hymn, the entire expression of his features changing from the sparkle of fun to the most profound expression of devotion. Again withdraw the finger from Veneration and replace it upon Mirth, and the patient resumes the comic song and the merry countenance.
This curious exhibition of cerebral excitement is not exceptional. It can be produced in the majority of somnambules on the first trial, but in all, with very rare exceptions, after half a dozen experiments. Nor are the expressions of the various faculties thus set in motion at all doubtful. No two spectators of ordinary intelligence would differ as to the motion that was being enacted before them. The language of the faculty is not faintly uttered, but far more vigorously and perfectly than is witnessed in waking life, save under the influence of intense passion or in the mimic passion of the stage. But no actor that ever lived has been enabled by his art to give such perfect expression to emotion, in feature and by attitude, as I have often seen exhibited by boys and girls, called promiscuously from the street, subjected to the somnambulistic influence with the entire ignorance of’ what was designed; who had never seen a play, much less acted one; who had not studied the expression of the mental motions, of whose very names they were ignorant; but who, nevertheless, might have been eagerly accepted by a painter as models for a saint or a sinner, according to the affection, or passion, or intelligence, that had been thus called into play by the slightest touch of the finger.
Much divergence of opinion has prevailed among the students of these phenomena as to the immediate causes of them. If they cannot otherwise be accounted for than by their apparent cause?the touching of the sites assigned by the phrenologists to the various mental faculties in the convolutions of the brain underlying the skull?the inference is that brain and skull have been correctly mapped by the craniologists. It is due to them to acknowledge, also, that the discovery of these phe- nomena did not precede, but followed, the doctrine of craniology. It is, to say the least of it, a remarkable fact, that in the condition of somnambulism, wheresoever and by whomsoever the skull is touched, that touch elicits, with rare exceptions, the precise expression which ought to be evoked if the material organ of the mental faculty located by phrenology as lying below that spot on the skull had been purposely excited to action.
Assuming, then, the certain and plainly demonstrative truth of the foregoing’, can you doubt the great and very high claims of Grail and Spurzlieim to our admiration and respect ? That they should stand in the very foremost rank of the most success- ful contributors to physiological knowledge can in no way be well disputed.
I would add, the close and earnest attention now being drawn to the labours and experiments of Dr Ferrier must ere very long bring the phrenological doctrine to the fore. It seems probable, too, that had Gall never lived, or had his instincts, his logical capacities, been at no time exercised on the localisation of the functions of the brain, the further and continued investigations of the Ferrier School would then have been the first to land mental science where Gall left it two long genera- tions since.
One more word. I will hope that what Gall discovered and his coadjutors and followers have taught, and are teaching, will be soon accepted by our profession; and that attached to our medical schools up and down the country will be found teachers of a creditable and sound mental philosophy. Not until this is the case can it be expected to see practised a really sound and discriminate training or treatment of the moral, and not less the intellectual, faculties, whether in the sane or insane; one whereby crime will be lessened, the qualities of our higher nature developed and exercised, and, what is closest to the point?the cause of civilisation in all its fulness and beauty realised.
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