Work Among the Mentally Defective in Switzerland
- Author:
Gertrud Lortscher.
Translated by W. E. Houghton. Who is mentally defective?
The idea of mental deficiency is a wide one, involving- much discussion. Psychologists vary in their conception of its boundaries. I am not going to discuss this question, but rather the place in social life of him who is considered mentally defective.
” He is abnormal, who, on account of a deviation in his intellectual or moral qualities is so far beneath the average as to be shut off from the usual educational and vocational advantages, and relegated to a special educational system.”
Let us consider what is and should be done for him. General Education. The first group of mental defectives to be taken in hand in Switzerland and dealt with systematically, as regards School-education, were the feeble-minded ; whilst, as far as the moral imbecile is concerned, we are still groping more or less in the dark.
In 1840-41 Hans Jakob Guggenbuhl opened an Institution at Abenburg, Canton Berne, which, it is true, was soon closed again. On the other hand the Keller Institution for feeble-minded girls in Kusnacht, which is still in existence, was founded as early as 1849. The first ” Relief-class,” opened in 1872 by a native of Zurich, had the same fate as the Guggenbuhl Institution. The Swiss Conference for Mental Welfare, which first met in 1889, and has met every two years since, took in hand the training and care of the mentally defective.
To-day, according to the Report of the Conference of 1921, we have in Switzerland 33 Institutions, with about 1,530 inmates (the return of 7 Institutions is lacking), and 198 Special Classes with about 3,300 pupils. The town of Zurich has not a single institution for moral imbeciles among children or young people. This lack is much felt by mental specialists and teachers. The fact is that, up to the present, these cases are for the most part sent to the ordinary schools. That we have more Institutions for those over school age is explained by the fact that the tendency to moral defect, which is often a passing one, is mostly not recognised until years of adolescence.
Spocial Schools.
We will first consider the special schools. In Canton Zurich we have the following method of admission. The teacher of backward pupils sends to the School Committee of the area a proposal that certain children should be removed to a Special School. The School doctor then examines the children and fills out a detailed form. Two School Managers are present at the entrance examination which follows.
Special Schools are usually divided into 3 grades?Lower, Middle and Upper ?which are attended by pupils according to ability and not according to age. These Classes, which are in one building, have, as far as possible, the same time-table, so that, for example, pupils of the Upper Class who are weak in reading and writing can attend the Lower Class for these subjects, and vice versa. Handwork classes occupy more time than in the normal schools. Work Glasses.
In 1916, two so-called ” Work-classes ” were started experimentally. The formation of these classes was based on the experience that there were always a number of Special School pupils who were incapable of profiting by theoretical teaching-, but who, for various reasons, could not be placed in an Institution. Another reason, on which too much stress was not laid at the time, was, that even the more capable pupils had great difficulty in finding situations, less on account of their lack of intellect than of their awkward clumsiness. So it was hoped not only that the Special Schools would be relieved of the incapable element, but also that the new method would be of more general service to the feeble-minded. The reason for not laying stress on this point was that the Work-classes met with powerful opposition, not only from the Authoiities, who feared a heavy financial burden, but also from Special School teachers, who reproached the very go-ahead, practical Herr Wunderli, the initiator, with personal interest in the matter. In spite of this opposition Area 3, Zurich, ventured on this experiment.
Children, who, after attending the Special School for 4 years, are unable to reach the level demanded, may be admitted to the Work-classes. In the Work-classes theoretical work is based not on deduction, but on experience. A Pupil, for example, is learning measurement. On paper he continually works it out incorrectly; he cannot grasp the idea of 10 cm. In the Work-class measure- ment is again explained to him. He is once more incorrect and the wood breaks. The result is that he has lost something, and the next time manages to measure correctly.
The two Work-classes that exist have to be used by all school areas. 1 he classes are not parallel, but are divided into upper and lower grades, so that here, too, it is possible to exchange pupils. The time-table covers 32 hours a week?? hours more than Normal or Special Schools. In summer the boys and girls work almost exclusively in the garden, during their 18 hours of practical work. The products are sold to the pupils for one-third market value. There is always sufficient work, owing to the size of the garden. It not only Pays for itself, but also brings in something extra which can be used for other Purposes. In winter, the girls have 18 hours’ cookery and domestic subjects. The boys have carpentry, metal-work and basket-making. In all the handwork classes, experience precedes theory. The teachers of the work classes try to attain their end, but meet with considerable difficulties, owing to material being delivered by the Supplies Department, cut according to the schemes issued for normal classes. Theoretical work is confined to reading, writing and arithmetic. Preparatory Ciasses.
The Preparatory Classes were started in 1918. Pupils who are not able to keep up with the 1st Class on account of mental backwardness, and are fairly certain to be admitted later to a Special School, may attend the Preparatory Class. The teachers of the Preparatory Class are expected to determine the mental level of their pupils, and to help them forward by giving them occupation and training, so that when they join the lower class of the Special School they can follow the tuition there.
The idea of the Preparatory Class came from Herr Wunderli, and was started in School Area 3. Experience has shown that it is useless to exempt mentally defective children from school, as they are not helped at home and, in school, owing to their limitations, they are not able to reap any benefit from the Kindergarten. It is true that the principle of no-exemption has not yet prevailed, so that even to-day the greater number of Preparatory Class pupils have been exempted once or twice and then have had to attend an Elementary School, remaining year after year in one class, until at last they aie sent to the Preparatory Class, with the result that they are much more difficult to help than if they had been educated on these lines from the beginning. Therefore, in the Preparatory Class we have children from 7-12.
Crammer Glasses.
A further new organisation which only exists as yet in School Area 3, is the so-called ” Crammer Class.” It is meant for children whose mental backward- ness results from outside conditions (neglect). Children who have to spend a second year in any class, and yet are not suitable for a Special School, are admitted. There is more handwork than in the Elementary School Class, and less than in the Special Schools. The children remain here a year or two and then return to the Elementary School.
Institutions.
Teaching methods in Institutions are like those in Special Schools. The children, however, do not make such good progress, for, as a rule, only the weakest are sent to Institutions. Vocational Education.
Moral Imbeciles.
” Moral imbeciles ” are divided according to their various characteristics, into many groups. Dr Scholtz, in his book ” Abnormal children,” specifies 12 such groups. Specialists are unanimous in laying down the rule that a ” Moral imbecile ” should never enter a trade or occupation in which the responsibility is so great that, through a slight breach of duty, harm might be done to others. Among such occupations is, for example, that of a railway official. Some are of opinion that an occupation should be chosen which offers the chances of much variety; others assert, on the contrary, that the tendency to instability should not be encouraged. Other experts hold that the “Moral imbecile” must always see a definite result ahead, which acts as a decoy, and yet, that he must not have too intensive work, as, for example, that of a machine-builder, who, it is true, sees his goal, but has to work with unending patience and perseverance, or that of a farmer, who, in spite of laborious work, often has extremely small results. The work of a shopkeeper generally affords opportunity for the necessary change, stimulation and expectation of results.
Nowadays we are more inclined to respect the principle of meeting individual peculiarities half-way, as it has been proved impossible to eradicate the defective tendencies.
Ihere is, as yet, little or no accommodation for “Moral imbeciles” of school age, and, as a result, they often get into trouble, on account of which they are sent to an institution, where they often receive more punishment than help. They seldom have a chance of being alone or developing individuality, and all independent action is out of the question. And yet these defectives will often be sent into the world again. It is questionable whether this strict external discipline has a lasting effect.
Feebleminded.
Mental defectives must, if possible, like normal people, learn a skilled trade with an instructor. They have this advantage over normal people, that they have learnt more handwork at school, where, even if they do not master a trade thoroughly, they at least have their manual dexterity developed. In Zurich mental defectives who have signed an agreement of apprenticeship, may, if thought advisable, have two terms in the Preparatory Class, where they learn reading, writing, arithmetic and drawing, before entering the Technical School. They need at least another year before they can pass their apprentice examina- tions. Some of the apprentices remain the whole time in the Preparatory Class, practical lessons in the Technical School being attended by all. The class consists of about 16 pupils who have lessons once a week from 12 to 6 o’clock.
Two examples wiil show how the workshops are managed. In the course of several years, three workshops were added to the Institute for Mentally Defective children at Regensburg?one for basket-making, one for carpet-making and one for carpentry. In 1914, an agricultural home, about 20 minutes from the Institution, was added; this is run by the ” home-parents.” The workers in the 3 workshops live together in a house about 5 minutes from the Institution ; one of the masters of the workshops acts as ” house-father. These homes are connected financially with the Institution, and are under the same director. In the carpentry-shop about 7 boys can be employed. As well as looking after all the house repairs in connection with the Institution, they work to order, and made last year 65 armchairs. In the carpet-making, there is room for about 7 apprentices. Door mats are made, a work possible even for the weakest.
In the basket-making shop, 8 boys can be employed and may learn, so fai as their ability allows, all kinds of rush weaving. At first they make hampers for bottles, covers for plants, and baskets for carrying wood. At Loohof, ^ the Agricultural Home, 8 or 10 youths can be” taught farming, and, at the same time, grow strong and healthy, working on the 28 acres of land. As the foundation of these homes was very costly, the cost of board is still as high as in the Institu- tion, although the boys earn part of their keep. The chief object of the homes is seen in the following extract from the Rules of the Institution ” Boys are sent here for educational purposes?they are to be strengthened physically and also gradually accustomed to working all day.”
In 1910 a home was affiliated to the Institution for Deaf and Dumb children in Turbental; this home is a building near the Institution, and is in management and in personnel connected with it; 25 boarders can be taken in. In this home there are workshops for making shoes out of cloth remnants, for basket-making, for carpentry and for brush-making. The shoes are made out of long narrow remnants, which are plaited on a last, and then lined and soled; about 800-1,000 Pairs are made a year. Two kinds of wicker-work are made: bread-baskets and hats for small children. The rushes used for this are split, planed and dyed t>y the pupils. They also make all kinds of brushes. Turbental used to have a loom for Smyrna carpets which had to be given up, because during the war wool could not be obtained.
The Basle weaving-mill is rather a different kind of workshop. The chief reason for founding this Institution was the almost insuperable difficulty of finding work for mental defectives immediately on their leaving school. It was seen that, when unemployed for any length of time, they not only did not develop further, but lost that ability which they had with difficulty acquired; every possible effort was made to remedy this. An enquiry made to S. and Co. “with regard to the hiring of a loom as an experiment, was responded to by that firm sending six complete looms free of charge. This was the beginning. The following history of the beginnings of the Basle weaving-mill is taken from the Report of 1918: “On December 6th, 1916, a Committee was formed. In the spring of 1917, we had two rooms prepared and placed at our disposal by the State, free of charge. Bobbins, cotton, etc., were supplied cheap, and in the middle of August work was started with 2 pupils. In March, 1918, in order to place the undertaking on a sound financial basis, the Union of Basle Weavers was formed, and this union drew up rules and regulations. At the end of the first year 17 boys and 8 girls were at work. In November, 1918, a room for girls alone was started?this room also being granted by the State.”
To-day there are 3 rooms, with 22 looms and 27 youths employed. The niore proficient do the weaving, the weaker ones manage the warp-beam, and the weakest of all do mechanical work under the supervision of a master-weaver. Wool-weaving” is now being tried experimentally. The less experienced make dusters, the cleverer ones fine cotton materials with artistic patterns. About 20 girls are employed in their own room in winding bobbins. They also make up the material woven by the boys into tablecloths, cushions, aprons for work and ornament, and children’s frocks, and hem the dusters and towels. This Institu- tion is not residential, but it has a branch in Zugerberg, ” Bergli,” where 8 male boarder-pupils are taken. Here there are 7 looms, and farming is also carried on. This is for those who are physically weak, and need to recuperate at the same time as earning a little. Both institutions only take temporary pupils. They have succeeded in training some pupils to take up silk-weaving.
In the Neuhof Boys’ Institute education is not entirely based on religion, but the attempt is made to bring out what is latent in each boy, to develop what is still capable of development. There are 3 tables in the dining-hall. At the lowest the newcomers sit. All have the chance of rising to the highest table; those who sit here have various privileges, the chief of which is to possess a room to oneself. In the single rooms, which, like all the dormitories, are fitted up according to individual taste, lights are allowed for an extra hour. Those occupying single rooms are allowed to go out on Sundays and other holidays, and receive pocket-money; they are also sent errands and get the so-called ” best jobs.” Prefects are also chosen from among them and receive 3 francs a month. It does not follow that a single room, once attained, is always kept. The pupil may be sent back for bad behaviour and can only be promoted again after two others have already been advanced to single rooms.
In this institution a trade can be thoroughly learnt and afterwards the State Apprenticeship Examinations passed. Those who are undecided as to an occupation or who wish to learn one not taught at the institution, are sent to the so-called General Department. They must stay in this General Department at least two years, and if they are learning a trade they can stay for three. If a pupil behaves well, he may be discharged at the end of a year and is then put to learn a trade, supervised by the Institution ; if he does not make good at this, he is taken back. These measures have, in most cases, good results, and often make it possible for the boys to return fairly soon to normal life.
The next institution I shall speak of has much less freedom; a fact seen at once in its name?Restraint, or Control Institution. It has room for about 70 inmates, who all sleep in single cells, which are locked all day and night, and are always watched. The stay here lasts at least one, at most, three years. During this period a trade can be learnt, followed by the apprenticeship examina- tion ; tailoring, basket-making, shoemaking and carpentry are the trades taught. A third institution is of a different character. Here 20 boys, from 12 to 16, are employed for 3 years. The only work besides school work is farming. There is no fixed time table; it changes according to the demands of the work. Even in School there is no definite scheme, as the classes are composed of such varying grades. In the evening, pupils, ” house-parents,” and staff meet together, and no one takes offence if the games are somewhat rough. The ” house-father ” knows the unhealthy tendencies of many of his pupils, yet he treats each as if something could be made out of him, and this helps to good results.
Possibilities of Employment.
It is clear that for mental defectives intellectual employment is out of the question. Many mental defectives, whose lack is purely in the intellectual domain, are employed in handicrafts, on account of their practical ability, and can make a livelihood without difficulty. It is much more difficult to find employment in cases where the defect shows in physical clumsiness. Some years ago those who had the care of mental defectives were unable to find suitable places for their pupils, unless they had been through a thorough apprenticeship. This is more or less the same to-day, but it is being modified more and more, in that mental defectives get positions as ” helpers ” only. The chief occupations to be considered are: plumber, saddler, tailor, basket-maker and the trades of hair-dresser and book-binder; for the girls, such employments as ironer, boys’ tailor, dressmaker.
Nowadays, when farmers are highly trained, the mental defective can no ‘onger rise to’ being an independent farmer. Previously, farming was con- sidered the most suitable work for the feeble-minded. But experience has shown, that in this work they can do much harm to themselves and others, ‘riiis view is only now coming into prominence and is held principally by those who have had practical experience, whilst theorists still advise training for farm work. There is in farming much work which requires independent thought, especially as regards cultivation of the land and care of animals. In farming the mental defective can accomplish only subordinate work, in which he must be supervised. But even for such work they are only fitted if they have normal physical strength, and that is seldom the case, as those with experience know ” only too well. It also often happens that mental defectives who go in for farming lose the habits of cleanliness they have with difficulty acquired, and the suppression of other bad habits ceases, because those in authority over them have no eye for such things. The principals of two institutions complained to me of the unruly condition in which their pupils often returned to them after a period spent on a farm, and confessed that the trouble they had taken with them had been in vain.
In gardening the same factors come into play as with farming. Mental defectives are incapable of fine independent work ; but they are fitted for rough work done under supervision.
Up to the present we know of but few industrial occupations suitable for mental defectives, because nowadays in all branches, employees have to know their work thoroughly. The only trades which have yet been experimented with are wool-weaving, carpet-making, wicker-work, basket-making, and brush-making. As far as work done at home is concerned, besides knitting, sewing, crocheting and embroidery for girls, we have rope-making for boys. In Zurich there is a Central Store at the Workshops for the Infirm, for selling such articles. But it has been proved that mental defectives can seldom be trusted with independent home work. Among the 70 people to whom home work is given by the Store, there are only 2 mental defectives. They are employed at rope-making. The Turbental Institute gives out raw material and tools to its former pupils, and then receives the finished articles. This is the only systematic work done at home.
During the present trade depression the problem of employment is very difficult. In 1922 there were 51,128 unemployed in Switzerland and 21,900 partially employed. We cannot ascertain how many of these were mental defectives, but certainly a great number would be, as the more highly qualified workmen would be kept on longest; unless, of course, mental defectives are kept on as working for less wages, in which case they act^ as wage depressors. We know that there are certain trades in which practically only mental defectives are employed. A Berne knitting firm employs mental defective girls, who earn only 20-30 frs. a month by piece-work; this means about 45-50 c’ts. an hour. But in industrial trades which have to reckon with workmen under a trades union and, therefore, have to pay a minimum wage, there is little chance for mental defectives, as the employers prefer to have people fully worth the money. Also, workpeople do not care to have mental defectives working with them, as they are not to be relied on for straight dealing.
I have, unfortunately, been able to inspect two factories only, one for chocolate-making, and one for textile fabrics. In the first named, mental defectives, and even epileptics, could be employed without danger in any of the rooms, and could do the work required just as well as normal workers. The same holds good for the weaving-mill, except that here epileptics would be in greater danger, in the event of falling. I made further enquiries about the textile industry, tanning and metal-work, and found that most of these industries employ mechanical and unskilled labour. Now, if mental defectives are able to accomplish as much and as good work as normal workpeople, the question of the minimum wage presents no difficulties, for workmen who produce the same quantity and quality of work can logically claim equal wages. But in placing mental defectives we must be careful to choose posts in which they can accomplish as much as the normal workman. Our first task is, therefore, to enquire into the possibilities of employing them in industry. This is a work of magnitude and difficulty, for those appointed to find out the possibilities must, on the one hand, be acquainted with the idiosyncrasies of mental defectives and epileptics, and, on the other, must understand the workings of a factory; so, we must ask ourselves who is to undertake such a task, and whether it would not be better to divide the labour. Since May, 1922, when the first meeting of ” Employment Advisers ” for those unable to earn full wages, was held, 6 such Advisers have been at work in the Canton. I consider that the first task of these Advisers is to go into the possibilities of employment of mental defectives in their own district, then to meet and exchange their experiences, and finally to write down their decisions and send them to suitable bodies, such as the Association for Mental Welfare. In order to do this thoroughly the other Cantons should also appoint such Advisers.
Now as to the employers’ liability. There are many factories to-day, in which this question is no longer of great importance, for the arrangements for the protection of workpeople are so efficient, that even with bad workmen accidents are almost impossible. All factories should be so provided and we should see to it that they are, and get into touch with factory inspectors to this end. The most difficult problem is how to do away with moral danger. It is a well-known fact that mental defectives are easily led astray; statistics prove that among criminals, drunkards, prostitutes, etc., a large percentage are mental defectives. In industry, on account of the freedom they enjoy, they are particularly liable to temptation. In the meeting of the Commission on those of small earning capacity in 1922 this question was brought up, and it was decided to have a full Report on the matter at the next Meeting. Ideas for remedying this are already in hand. Think of the many ” foster- homes ” which are run by the Y.M.C.A. in Zurich. Boys are boarded with a suitable family and are provided by the Central Bureau with books, and, in winter, with facilities for sport. If the same plan were carried out with mental defectives there would have to be a strict, though inconspicuous, supervision. Another idea is to start boarding-houses in connection with factories. The opinion of factory-owners was asked, and they agreed that it would be excellent to have such houses, but that they must be under the control of people unconnected with the factory. (Seven such boarding-houses exist in East Switzerland, with 330 inmates.)
A more important idea is that mental defectives should work in a room by themselves, separated from the other workpeople. In this way the fear of being laughed at would disappear, and it would be possible to have an overseer for them alone, who understood their particular needs.
Up to now we have spoken only of those who can be fully employed; the following statistics show us the proportion of those who are only partially employable or even unemployable:? Inmates of Institutions? Fully employable … … 15% Partially employable … 35% Unemployable … … 50% Special School Pupils? Fully employable … … 60% Partially employable … 30% Unemployable … … 10%
Ihose who are only partially employable cannot work either at a trade or in industry. Some are able to earn a livelihood with work done at home; but here the difficulty arises that mental defectives are characterised by being able to work only under constant supervision ; the majority work better under control than when left to themselves. The same holds good for the unemployable. I he majority of these can accomplish a certain amount of useful work if this is carried on in suitable surroundings. How and where we can employ this class of mental defectives requires much thought. So far as I can see there are only two possibilities:?
Occupation in residential institutions.
2. Employment in industrial undertakings run by private associations, district societies, or the State. As to 1, there are several possibilities to be considered:? (a) Workshops connected with each institution and used only for inmates of that institution. (b) One large set of workshops, attached to one institution, where pupils from others could be taken in. (c) A self-supporting residential home on a large scale.
This last seems to me the best, and most specialists agree with me. Berne is already on the way to realise this solution. After much hard work a Committee has succeeded in forming an Association which has hopes ?f raising a capital of 150,000 frs., as well as of receiving yearly contributions ,?f 10,000 frs. In Spring, 1924, a Work and Welfare Home is to be opened in Konitz Castle, which has been obtained cheaply from the Govern- ment ; this is only at present for girls. The advantage of one independent home lies in the fact that a larger institution of this kind can be carried on on more rational and many-sided lines. One such Work and Welfare Home should serve at least a whole Canton. The question will be raised again: Should such an institution be run by the State or as a private undertaking? This is easily answered, for at present, the State, far from being willing to start new institutions, is saving on those already established. So, private Welfare Associations must take up the work for the present, but care must be taken to interest the State more and more in the matter. Individual districts, in which financial conditions are relatively favourable, should, join together to found such an institution.
What branches of work are to be carried on in such a home? Berne intends to have farming, knitting, basket-making, washing, ironing, sewing and mending. In the Institution for boys only, weaving (of carpets, linen, cotton, and wool), basket-making, shoemaking, carpentry and brush-making. Some Pupils could also be employed with rope-making, etc. The bigger the scale of such a home, the better and cheaper it could be run, both as regards buying ?f raw material and sale of products; also as regards employing the inmates in the home itself. It would be still more reasonable for two homes, one for men and one for women, to be run in connection with one another. It would then be possible for the women to do the washing, etc., for both Institutions, whilst the men looked after farm and garden. Shoe-making, tailoring and carpentry could be done for their own needs. Those who are incapable of full work could be employed as helpers in making wholesale goods.
It might be possible to employ part-workers and the unemployable in industrial undertakings and trade workshops run by private Associations, possibly subsidized by the State, or by District Associations, with or without State aid. Here, again, several Cantons could join. A weaving-mill, such as that in Berne, would, perhaps, be the best thing to start with, as experience in that direction has already been gained. Such an undertaking cannot, of course, pay its own way entirely; the workpeople would be paid 50 per cent more than they would be in industry, so that in spite of their lack of working capacity, they might earn a certain amount. The Basle mill made 13,989 frs. profit in 1921, but, of course, they had their capital of 29,8-12 frs. (raised by donations, subsidies and subscriptions) and also a loan of 27,800 frs. Also they have buildings free or very cheap. The beautiful and original patterns of the Basle materials make it possible for them to compete with outside industry, in spite of their higher prices. They have the great advantage of Herr Kestenholz’s art; he designs all the patterns himself, and is the real founder of the mill, and its honorary manager. What makes the product still dearer is the fact that only hand-looms arc used, which looms do only 15-20 per cent of the work of machine-looms. At least one machine-loom should be installed, worked by a more highly skilled workman, so that orders wanted at once need not be refused. There are other branches possible. At Konitz a knitting machine is to be installed.
Articles of saleable value should be produced. We must now ask ourselves how these goods are to be disposed of. The first point is that the individual institutions must not compete with each other. The Basle weaving-mill has already found that it is not easy to prevent this. When a new institution is being opened and trades are to be started there which are already carried on by some other institution, enquiries must be made into the chances of a ready sale for the products; in this way competition might be avoided. To this end before starting brush-making, the Turbental Institution got into communication with the Central Association for the Blind. It should be possible to arrange different districts for sale of the products. It is also desirable that the individual institutions should be in close connection with one another; for instance, raw material could be bought in larger quantities, and joint stores for selling the products could be started. At the Conference of the Association for the Welfare of the Partially Employable, a Society for community of work and saie or products was formed. Lcrchenbuhl Institution, for instance, buys all its brushes from the Blind Institution, and, in exchange, the travellers for the Blind take Lerchenbuhl carpets with them. Whether goods should be sold direct to the consumer or through a shop depends on circumstances, but, up to the present, experience has shown that the direct sale is best. Turbental Institution, which sends all its brushes to shops, makes little profit, whereas Aarburg, which sells direct to the consumer, makes more, relatively, than any other institution.
Future Development.
There is no resting to-day for those who fought for improved conditions; they must still fight, not only to increase their work but also for its very existence. Education authorities are bent on reducing expenditure, and intend to put an end to all the more expensive institutions. It does not matter to them that the little they save will, in the end, have to be paid by the Poor Law Guardians, because, unfortunately, these separate Departments are entirely independent in their activities. Whilst the exact cost of the Work-classes can be reckoned, the good they do cannot be measured in the same way. Nearly all specialists agree that this is by far the best type of education for mental defectives, who easily forget what they learn only theoretically, but are more likely to retain what is learnt practically. The chief difficulty in getting posts for mental defectives is their clumsiness and awkwardness, which faults can be at least partially eliminated in the Work-classes.. I have, unfortunately, not been able to obtain any comparative statistics regarding the placing of pupils from Special Schools and Work-classes. But the following figures are interest- ing- In 1917 the After Care Committee for pupils of Special Schools apprenticed 28 pupils, 24 were from Special Schools, and 4 from the Work-classes. After 4 weeks only 4 were still at work; one was from a Special School, the other 3 from the Work-classes.
In the Report of the Swiss Union for the Education and Care of the Mentally Defective, even an opponent of Work-classes stated that there were certain cases in which theoretical tuition was useless, and that an introductory course in practical work would be of more value. We should see to it that more Work-classes are started, and more hand work done in Special Schools and Institutions. There should also be Hostels attached to Work-classes and Special Schools. Such Hostels would answer the same purpose as Institutions, and should be managed by specially trained people. Need I add that more Institu- tions and Special Schools are wanted? Principals of Institutions are convinced that there are numbers of mental defectives in the country, exempted from school and running wild. The Principal of an Institution for Incurables assured me that if children were taken early enough to an Institution or Special School they might, in some cases, prove to be educable. Another told me that he “was constantly having children brought to him to be tested, who have been exempted from school for years and yet have proved not to be ineducable.
Education Authorities in the country are often worse than useless, as they refuse to make use of the weapon put in their hands by the law. If the parents object to the children being sent to a Special School or Institution, the Authorities take no further steps, not daring to refer the matter to a Court of Law. It would be easy to gather statistics and prove this, but the State is not anxious to do so, as it would mean founding more institutions. &ut we must insist that such statistics be taken, so that we may demand further accommodation.
At the first Conference of Mental Welfare Associations the question of founding Work Colonies was mooted; this question has been brought up at every Conference since, but, as yet, with very small results, quite inadequate to the requirements. Specialists are not agreed as to how such Work Colonies should be developed.
Others go still further and ask for independent Cantonal Work Colonies to be started; some even think that one Swiss Institution would best fulfil all the demands. It is true that in a big Institution of this kind it would be possible to run many kinds of trades, and to have well-appointed workshops. Those who are opposed to this idea hold that difficulties would arise owing to the differences of the various Cantons and their religious beliefs; also they think that in so large an undertaking, individuality would be swamped. Those who are in favour of the motion believe that local peculiarities would not have niucb influence on vocational training. They quote experiences in the large Work Colonies and huge Institutions of Germany, with 1,000, or more, inmates, where, through special organisation, the idea of family life is satisfactorily carried out. One Principal argued that in a small Institution for only 20-30 children family life was impossible, but that in an Institution on a larger scale such as the German one, it was possible to group the children into small ” families.”
The majority are opposed to State management, fearing loss of independ- ence, and increased cost owing to the larger wages which would have to be paid. As a result of a Report sent up by the Association for Mental Welfare, a contribution of 15,000 frs. was granted by the Council to the Central and Branch Associations. Besides this, 6,500 frs. were sent to the Central Association for Care of the Blind, and to the Society for educating and suc- couring the Mental Defectives. In the Federal Council the following motion was. brought forward by Herr Matt in 1919 : ” The Federal Council is asked to con- sider the following question, and to report on it : How institutions for the abnormal are to be supported in view of the increased cost of living, and their further existence rendered possible? ” This set the ball rolling. The motion was accepted by the Federal Council and approved by the Councillors. An expert enquiry Commission, which was then formed, submitted the draft of a Bill, drawn up by Herr Matt; this, however, was not gone into, and there is no hope of the Federal Council considering it at present. The Bill deals chiefly with the subsidis- ing of institutions by the Federal and Cantonal Councils, but also lays stress on the importance of developing vocational training.
Article 1 says: Yearly contributions shall be made by the Federation and individual Cantons to such institutions as undertake the care, physical and mental, and also possible vocational training of mental defectives. Article 10 says: The Council shall contribute 50 per cent, to the training of teachers, who are to give special instruction to Mental Defectives, and to manual instructors, who are prepared to train Mental Defectives for a trade.
It is the wish of many Welfare Workers to place Mental Defectives in the country, under instructors who have a small-holding, as well as facilities “for teaching a trade. As suitable instructors are difficult to find, it is suggested that some should be trained who would then be willing to take in five or six pupils, whose board would be paid for. Some workers go still further, and think that teachers who are fitted for the work by temperament and training, should start workshops in the country, where their pupils could be employed in farming or gardening, as well as with handwork.
Another point in the programme is the starting of workshops in towns where the pupils would not be boarders. In Zurich, in 1922, Herr Stauber, the ” Town employment Adviser,” opened so-called ” free ” workshops for the unemployed just over school age. He would like, when conditions improve, and there is no longer need for such institutions, to develop them into places for training Mental Defectives in a trade. This would be possible at com- paratively small expense. About 8,519 frs. were collected from private sources to start these two workshops for wood-work and metal-work; only 3,234 frs. were spent on fitting them up, so that a sum of 5,315 frs. remained over, which could be devoted to their extension. The town pays to the Principals 400-800 frs. a month, to the attendants 25-50 frs., for material 150-200, frs., total 1,150-1,250; there are about 22 apprentices in each workshop.
The idea of using such existing workshops for mental defectives was welcomed by all specialists. All these proposals have been considered with a view to giving mental defectives a thorough training, and though lately there has been a strong tendency not to give them such a thorough training, but to find them situations in industrial works where mechanical or unskilled labour is wanted, we must continue to press for training for all who are sufficiently capable. The public and the State must be prepared to spend largely.
Disclaimer
The historical material in this project falls into one of three categories for clearances and permissions:
Material currently under copyright, made available with a Creative Commons license chosen by the publisher.
Material that is in the public domain
Material identified by the Welcome Trust as an Orphan Work, made available with a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
While we are in the process of adding metadata to the articles, please check the article at its original source for specific copyrights.