The Abilities of Man: Their Nature and Measurement
- Author:
Spearman, Ph.D.
F.R.S., Grote Professor of Philosophy of Mind at the University of London. Mac- millan & Co., London : 1927. lGs. net.
Professor Spearman’s new book consists of an analysis of the intellectual abilities of man, with special reference to the mental differences between individuals. The volume falls into two parts. The first describes the chief rival theories on the subject propounded from the days of Plato onwards. The second consists of a summary of all the available evidence bear- ing- upon these various views.
The data brought together in the second half consists for the most part in the results of ex- perimental tests carried out, in London schools or at the psychological laboratory of University College, London, by Professor Spearman and his colleagues during the past twenty years.
Of all this research work the most important result has been the demonstration that a single central factor underlies all our intellectual pro- cesses. This central factor Professor Spear- man has named g : it may be roughly identified with what is popularly known as general intelligence. The other determinants Professor Spearman calls specific factors; and, according to his view, the most striking characteristic of these specific factors is their narrowness and specificity. For the existence of broad facul- ties, like observation, memory, pr reasoning, he finds no evidence whatever. The mind or brain he likens to a series of separate engines driven by a single source of energy : the sum- total of a man’s innate mental energy is identi- fied with the man’s general intelligence; the localised areas of the brain, actuated by this general fund of energy, are identified with the specific intellectual factors, partly innate, but mainly developed through education and ex- perience.
It is obvious that the problems raised have a close and intimate bearing upon the psychology of mental deficiency. Professor Spearman begins by distinguishing cognitive processes from processes that are called effective or conative; or, in less technical language, the intellectual from the temperamental and moral aspect of the mind. The detailed discussion of conation he leaves for another volume. But, from his brief references in the present work, it is clear that he considers the mental activities of man to be determined largely by two outstanding- general factors : besides the better-known factor of g (or ” general in- telligence “) underlying intellectual abilities, he recognises a second factor, called w, which has tentatively been termed self-control (though Professor Spearman thinks the name misleading), and which underlies moral and emotional activities and so affects the chief qualities of temperament or character. This distinction is itself of great practical import- ance. It supplies a theoretical sanction for the familiar classification of the mentally de- fective into two main types?what have been called the intellectually defective on the one hand and the temperamentally defective on the other hand, those who fail in school work and in social life mainly from lack of intelli- gence, and those who fail mainly from an instability of character, arising from instincts so violent and uncontrolled that they seem like propensities to vice and crime.
In the former and commoner sense, mental deficiency might almost be defined as an innate defect in g, that is, in the central factor of general intelligence. It is, however, some- times argued that limited defects should also be recognised as forms of mental deficiency : and that the children who, though normal in general intelligence, are suffering from what is called word-blindness, or from special dis- ability in arithmetic, should also be transferred to special schools. Professor Spearman, it is true, admits the existence of certain limited and supplementary capacities; but he main- tains that these are all extremely specific, and are often more likely to be acquired than inborn. This agrees with the characteristics of the defective child as commonly met with in our special schools. He is not merely back- ward in certain specialised directions : he is backward all round. The cases of special dis- ability are exceedingly rare; and, as investiga- tion shows, it is often doubtful whether the underlying defect is really innate.
Professor Spearman’s theories, therefore, are of the utmost significance for the practical worker. His book forms an admirable sum- mary of the doctrines held, and of the data collected up to the present time; it should be studied by everyone interested in the psycho- logy of the mentally deficient. We shall avvait? with the greatest eagerness, his further volume on the emotional and moral qualities ?f man.
Cyril Burt. Psychology. Its Methods and Principles. By F. A. Clay Perrin and David Ballin Klein. Methuen & Co. 8/6. Professors Perrin and Klein have taken a study of behaviour as a basis for the study of Psychology.
I he authors have devoted the first part of their book to the structural mechanism of behaviour, giving an excellent description, with diagrams of the various sense organs, the en- docrine glands, etc., and their connections VVlth the nervous system.
1 he psychological foundation of behaviour is found in reflex action. These actions are subsequently modified by experience, and in the higher animals integrated into simultaneous 0r successive patterns. Instincts are described as habit complexes, their fundamental import- ance is denied, and the term regarded as misleading and useless.
^he next section is devoted to the motivation ?f behaviour. This is relegated to two groups factors, namely, physiological drives and Motional changes, with which they are ^timately associated. The experiments of Gannon, Carlson and Wada are quoted in Support of this view.
f he experimental studies on the influence of yarning on behaviour have led lo the conclu- sion that kinesthetic impulses afford the prin- cipal help to man. Although the subject may said to be attentive, it is misleading to hink that consciousness effects learning. Ihe difficulty of distinguishing a psycho- ?8”ical from a mental process is discussed; the authors reject the proposition that mental acts can be defined in terms of consciousness. By tracing the genesis of mental activity, they strive to prove that the starting point of a developing mind is effected by the substitution language, as a stimulus for a reflex act. speech is continually associated with a parti- cular stimulus, it gradually takes the place of the latter, the child responds to speech and is said to understand spoken words. Tracing the urther development of thought, the importance language increases as a stimulus to thought, and leads to the conclusion that mental reaction ls only language reaction or that thought is 0nty a form of behaviour.
The authors have included the account of many experiments, and have added a list of references, making- the book both valuable and suggestive. From the standpoint of a behaviourist, it would serve as an excellent introduction. It does not, however, give any adequate knowledge of other interpretations of human behaviour. A beginner seeking a general introduction should use this book in conjunction with the exposition of other points of view.
G. W. H. Industries and Occupations for the Men- tally Defective. By P. J. Deely, M.I.H., A.R.S.I. 1927. Obtainable from the Manor, Epsom. 7/6.
This book has been written by the House Steward of The Manor, Epsom, and he has been guided by his experience at that Institu- tion. It describes the various industries and occupations which are considered suitable for mental defectives, treating nearly fifty, and includes sufficient details to give a clear idea of the methods adopted, materials used, and tools handled.
The usefulness of some of the industries described as a means of assisting defectives to contribute to their own support is not, by reason of the little demand for the manu- factured articles and outside competition, free from doubt; but the majority of them, if super- vised constantly by qualified instructors so that excellence of workmanship is always main- tained, will provide valuable training of a pro- fitable nature. The author has written of Brushmaking, both ” drawn ” and ” set ” work, at considerable length, and in a manner that should enable anyone to grasp its rudi- ments without difficulty. The same can be said of some of the other occupations. Re- ference is made to the employment of the defective in the Colony, ” in the industry for which his capabilities can best be utilised for his own well-being and advantage to the Institution.” If it is suggested in one occupa- tion only, I think there are many more advan- tages if, at least for a year or two, alternative occupations are provided for.
As stated in the preface, occupations are essential for the happiness and development of mental defectives?occupation, in fact, is the keynote of success in the treatment of these persons. The author alludes to the enquiries 86 Mental welfare.
frequently received concerning” the various industries, of which I have personal know- ledge, and this descriptive work, though ” likely to be principally helpful to those about to associate themselves with this branch of work,” should also prove suggestive to others; more particularly if a study of it is combined with visits to Institutions where the industries and occupations are carried on.
I should like to have seen a chapter included in the book on the characteristics of the suc- cessful supervisor or instructor, these being of equal importance.
Charles -W. Mayer. London County Council Annual Report, 1926. Vol. III. Public Health. P. S. King & Son. 2/6.
This volume of the L.C.C. Report contains Dr Menzies’ Report in his capacity of Medi- cal Officer of Health and of School Medical Ofiicer. Apart from the usual valuable infor- mation of the L.C.C. area, it contains some details of exceptional interest regarding Men- tal Deficiency.
Dr Fairfield has analysed the notes of the cases of those women dealt with under the Mental Deficiency Act who have at some time given birth to one or more illegitimate chil- dren. They are 32 in number :?
” 23 women have given birth to one child. 4 ,, ,, ,, two children. 4 ,, ,, ,, three children. 1 woman has ,, ,, nine children.
The total number of children born was 47. Although most of the births are very recent, 16 of the 47 children are already dead. Of the 32 womenj two are married, but both of the latter group have had illegitimate chil- dren. One of them is the mother of nine children. She evaded recognition during school days, married, had eight children, six of whom died, two being saved by the care of relatives. After her husband’s death she gave birth to an illegitimate child, who died of venereal disease. Her two surviving children are mentally defective, as was the only one of the seven deceased children who survived in- fancy. The history of the 32 mothers shows that seven came from provincial schools (one being a Special School), and 24 from London schools. Of the latter, 13 were educated in ordinary elementary schools and only 11 had been tp Special Schools for defective children- Five of the 11 left school before the Mental Deficiency Act came into being-, one being- at school when the disaster happened. In one case, a petition to put the defective in an insti- tution had been dismissed by the magistrate; in two cases, the names had been notified by the Education Committee, the girls leaving school at 16. In two cases, the girls were under voluntary supervision.” (p. 53.) Though these statements make depressing reading, they should not be taken as evidence against the value of supervision, for it must not be forgotten that the figures refer to 32 cases, whereas the total of those dealt with under the M.D. Act for 1926 by the L.C.C. was 4,390.
The gradual standardisation of the exami- nation for mental defect in the schools is interestingly described (p. 136) :? ” When the schools were first commenced in 1892 by the late School Board for London there were no statutory arrangements governing the conduct of such classes, ad- mission to which was arranged by the in- spectorate, any medical supervision being of a voluntary character. In 1898 the Medical Officer of that day was directed to supervise the classes and in the following year two part-time assistants were delegated the task of visiting the schools and examining en- trants. After the passage of the Elemen- tary Education (Defective and Epileptic Children) Act, 1899, the medical work was placed on a statutory basis from which time the records have been preserved.
” There is no question but that, at that time, the Special Schools were ‘ schools of recovery,’ and that the term ‘ mental de- fect ‘ had not its present connotation sug- gestive of a need for permanent care, super- vision and control.
” … From the end of the war on- wards the standard of suitability for admis- sion to special schools has been, broadly, that a child should have a mental ratio of between f and | the normal with some serious educational retardation, always sup- posing that retardation could not be ex- plained on other than mental grounds.” (p. 137.)
Figures are given to show that the standard has remained practically constant in the last nine years.
The figures for mentally-defective children school age dealt with by the L.C.C. are as Allows (p. 157) :?
Feeble-minded (cases not notifiable to the Local Control Authority).
Boys. Girls. Total. -Attending- certified schools f?r mentally - defective children 3,506 2,685 6,191 Attending public elemen- tary schools … … 6 5 11 At other institutions … 333 211 544 At no school or institution 47 49 96 Notified to the Local Control Authority during- the year. feeble-minded 53 90 143 lrnbecile 76 51 127 Idiots … 10 7 17
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