Margaret Horsey
(of the National Institute of Industrial Psychology)
Many homilies have been preached on ” life’s failures “?who are gen- erally visualized as grimy loafers supporting die walls of a public house. But failures are of many types and they are not always recognizable at sight. They include the adventurous spirit eating out his heart as a bank clerk; the Army officer whose heart is in Cambridge or Bloomsbury and who finds nothing but boredom in his work; the schoolmaster who may know his subject from A to Z but who has a constant nerve-racking struggle to keep discipline. Such men are failures from their own point of view no less than the man who eschews work altogether. And they may well be more dangerous to society; for the loafer is often a jovial fellow and no-one’s enemy but his own, while the man who is working constantly ” against the grain ” lives in a chronic state of dissatisfaction which tends to spread itself to others.
Mr. Aldous Huxley treats this question with his usual lucidity in “Proper Studies.” ” In society as it is organized at present enormous numbers of men and women are performing functions which they are not naturally suited to perform. The misplacement of parts in the social machine leads to friction and consequent waste of power; in the case of the individuals concerned it leads to many varieties of suffering. The man of poor ability who is set to perform a function too difficult for him not only does the work badly, thereby diminishing the total efficiency of the society in which he lives, but himself personally suffers (if external pressure or his own conscience compels him to take his work seriously) from a chronic anxiety and sense of strain, which may and frequently do result in physical breakdown. The man of good ability doing work that is too easy for him is also diminishing the total efficiency of society, by wasting the major portion of his powers. The consciousness of this waste of powers breeds discontent, bitterness, and a kind of cynicism most disagreeable to the individual himself, and very dangerous to the society in which he lives. The misfit which has the gravest consequences is that of the man deficient in the qualities of leadership who is set over his fellows. Men in authority who nag at their subordinates; who are malignant or unjust; who are blinded by their own emotional reactions to the extent of not being able to grasp the objective reality of the event which roused their feelings: leaders who do not know their underlings’ jobs; who are vain and take them- selves too seriously; who lack a sense of humour and intelligence?all these can inflict enormous sufferings on the men and women over whom they are set. And they are responsible not only for suffering but for discontent, anger, rebellion, to say nothing of inefficiency. For it is notorious that a bad com- mander, whether of troops or of workmen, of clerks in an office or children in a school, gets less work out of his subordinates and of worse quality than a good commander. The misfit of bad leadership is one of the major causes of individual unhappiness and social inefficiency. It is a cause which some suitable system of psychological testing could completely eliminate.”
Mr. Huxley is our most omniscient novelist and it would be rash to sug- gest that he is not as deeply read on psychological testing as on every other subject. But there is a flavour of the undergraduate about that airy final sentence. ” Some suitable system of psychological testing “?especially when the quality to be tested is not intelligence (which can now be measured with fair approximation to accuracy) but so complex a temperamental quality as leadership?is not to be devised off-hand. But one could scarcely improve on Mr. Huxley’s statement of the problem; and his hopefulness is nothing to that of Mr. Bernard Shaw, who in the preface to ” The Apple Cart ” writes as follows, ” Shortly before the war a doctor in San Francisco discovered that if a drop of a candidate’s blood can be obtained on a piece of blotting paper, it is possible to discover within half an hour what is wrong with him physically. What I am waiting for is the discovery of a process by which on delivery of a drop of his blood or a lock of his hair we can ascertain what is right with him mentally. We could then have a graded series of panels of capable per- sons for all employment, public or private. At the lower end of the scale, there would be a panel of persons qualified to take part in a parish meeting; at the higher end a panel of persons qualified to act as Secretaries of State for Foreign Affairs or Finance Ministers. At present not more than two per thousand of the population would be available for the highest panel.” Mr. Shaw’s optimism extends even to his statistics!
The need for vocational guidance is recognized by our two most intelli- gent authors. Unfortunately it is not so clearly recognized by the plain man. Psychology, he feels, may be necessary for the neurotic, but where there is no question of abnormality he prefers to rely on horse sense. And it is sur- prising how little even of the latter quality he applies in practice. How many men, when choosing a post for their sons, seriously consider the relative advantages of different careers, even from the most obvious standpoint? A post is chosen because it is ” safe ” or ” respectable ” or carries a pension, or simply because some relative has offered a vacancy, and no thought is given to the question of whether still greater advantages might not be offered by other work which the boy is equally qualified to take.
Among boys themselves this light-hearted spirit is carried to extremes. An enquiry made recently among the boys in the top forms of a large second- ary school in the Midlands showed that a number held completely mistaken ideas about the work they hoped to enter. One, for example, was entering the Home Civil Service partly because he wanted opportunities for foreign travel; while another proposed to become a bank clerk because he was good at modern languages. Such complete misconceptions were rare among the elder boys; but in more than half the cases, the reasons for choosing an occupation, though not actually incorrect, were based on some superficial and quite in- cidental advantage of the work?as in the case of the boy who hoped to become a motor mechanic because ” my father wants me to be able to repair his car.”
But it is in passing from what may be called the ” general ” advantages of an occupation to its suitability for a particular person that the average man is most at sea. He will grant that a consumptive should not work in a base- ment and that a man with no head for figures should not become an account- ant; but as to the relevance of more subtle individual differences he is inclined to be sceptical. How often do we find a father determined that his son shall ” follow in his footsteps,” regardless of the fact that the son’s tastes and abilities lie in quite another direction? Even where there is some attempt to relate the work to the child’s abilities, it is generally only one feature of the occupation which is considered, to the exclusion of all others. A boy is clear-headed and can marshall arguments admirably on paper?he must become a barrister, though he is hesitating in speech and completely lacking in the qualities which impress a jury. Or he needs an outdoor life so commercial travelling is decided upon, although he is incurably diffident and almost pedantically truthful. A girl has the maternal instinct well developed, so she is clearly a born nurse; or she has won an essay prize, so what about Fleet Street??one could multiply examples indefinitely, but the point needs no labouring. Scientific vocational guidance must take into acocunt every important feature of the occupation, and all the relevant mental and temperamental qualities of the child.
But how, the enquiring parent may ask, can such guidance be obtained ? Abroad, the question would seldom be necessary. In Germany, for example, every important district has its own ” Landesarbeitsamtor vocational guid- ance bureau, financed by the State, where children can be tested and advised free of charge; and many large firms refuse to employ children who have not been declared by the bureau to be suitable for the work they would be required to do. In England, public money is spent only on delinquents and mental defectives; the vocational guidance of normal children is in the hands of a private body, the National Institute of Industrial Psychology. This Institute was founded in 1921. Its first President was the late Earl of Balfour and its Principal is Dr C. S. Myers, formerly head of the Psychological Laboratory at Cambridge and Consulting Psychologist to the British Expeditionary Force. The Institute has two main functions?the reduction of fatigue and strain in industry by the improvement of working conditions, and the construction and application of psychological tests. Grants from the Laura Spelman Rockefeller Memorial and the Carnegie United Kingdom Trust have enabled it to conduct two experiments in the vocational guidance of elementary school children. The first of these experiments, which was carried out in collaboration with the Industrial Fatigue Research Board, had as subjects one hundred children due to leave three elementary schools in the London area. The children were tested and advised about the choice of an occupation; and two years later they were ” followed up ” and their success or failure noted in relation to the advice previously given. It was found that, of those who had followed the Institute’s advice, more than eighty per cent, were satisfied with their work, their pros- pects and their pay; while of those who had not followed the Institute’s advice, less than forty per cent, were satisfied. The children in the first group had experienced fewer changes of occupation than those in the second; they had generally obtained promotion earlier, and were on the average in receipt of higher pay. A full account of this experiment will be found in Report No. 33 of the Industrial Fatigue Research Board. ” A Study in Vocational Guidance.” The second experiment dealt with six hundred children who were com- pared with a ” control ” group of six hundred who had not been tested by the Institute but had been advised in the usual way at the school leaving con- ference. An account of this experiment will be published shortly. The greater complexity of the data makes a clear-cut statement of results impossible, but the general outcome of the experiment entirely confirms that of the previous one.
The vocational guidance offered by the Institute is not confined to in- dustrial work. Anyone requiring advice on the choice of an occupation for himself or his son can consult the Institute in the same way, and on much the same terms, as he can consult a medical specialist. Four hundred and thirty such cases were examined in 1930. The subjects were mainly public and secondary school pupils (boys or girls) about to enter occupational life; though in some cases advice was given to younger children, when there was a question of deciding between alternative curricula, or to elder persons who were for any reason dissatisfied with their position and were debating the desirability of a change.
The psychological examination lasts about three hours, and covers intelli- gence (” linguistic ” and practical), manual dexterity (should this be relevant) and mechanical sense. No satisfactory tests of temperament and character traits have yet been devised, so reliance is placed on observations ?f the candidate during the test, and his answers to questions about his interests, hobbies, ambitions, etc. By this means, it is possible to discover to which of the following three classes he inclines?those who deal best with people (political organizers, salesmen, etc.), those who deal best with things (manual workers and some engineers), and those who deal best with words or symbols (clerks, accountants, etc.). There are, of course, compar- atively few ” pure ” specimens of any of these types; most people (and fortunately most occupations) fall into some intermediate category. The teacher, for example, must combine ability to deal with symbols with ability to deal with people; while in the higher branches of engineering, ability to deal with symbols must be associated with ability to deal with things.
By combining its knowledge of the requirements of different occupations with the knowledge thus gained of the candidate, the Institute can state with fair confidence the types of work in which he is most likely to succeed. Recom- mendations are not made dogmatically; several occupations are usually mentioned, in order of suitability, and reference is of course made to the can- didate’s circumstances?a boy, for example, who could not afford a university education would not be advised to become a doctor.
Attempts are being made to keep in touch with those tested at the Institute, but the ” follow up ” of paying subjects presents certain difficulties, since it is not always easy to obtain the required information and impossible to make it public without the consent of the persons concerned. Also, since most of the subjects enter professional or higher commercial occupations, a considerable period of training and of experience has usually to elapse before success or failure can be predicted with confidence.
For these reasons the information at present available is somewhat scanty. Some interesting preliminary results, however, are given in the current num- ber of the Institute’s Journal, in which is described the ” follow up ” of fifty- three boys who were tested at the Institute in 1927. These boys had all received a public or secondary school education, and at the time of the examination were aged from 15 to 20.
At the time of the ” follow up ” five boys were still at school and two had been prevented by serious illness from undertaking any work or study. Of the remaining forty-six boys, thirteen were studying at universities and other institutions and thirty-three had been engaged in their chosen occupations for periods ranging from six months to three years.
Of the thirteen boys at universities or training centres, ten had taken courses which were recommended and nine reported a satisfactory degree of success and contentment in their work. The tenth, who had failed in two different courses, admitted that ” the real trouble with me is an aversion from work.” The remaining three boys were all of distinctly nervous and unstable temperament, two having been in the hands of psychotherapists. Two of them were studying medicine and the third dentistry?careers which were judged to be definitely unsuitable on temperamental grounds. At the time of the enquiry all had made reasonable progress and were, so far, satisfied with their choice.
Of the thirty-three boys at work, twenty-one had entered occupations judged by the Institute to be suitable, while twelve had chosen occupations judged to be unsuitable or questionable. Of the first group, all save one were making good progress, were finding their work congenial, and had no desire to adopt any other career. The one exception had been advised to seek ” office work requiring mathematical ability,” and insurance work was suggested as one possible course. He entered an insurance office but at the time of the enquiry had not advanced beyond the stage of routine work. He was des- cribed by the Institute as ” not very energetic or sociable ” and apparently he was not enjoying ” running about for others.” He found records and files ” very boring at times ” and stated that ” there is hardly any Maths.” It seems probable that the work will become more satisfying as the routine element diminishes.
The following case is quoted as typical of those who have followed the Institute’s advice. ” An intelligent boy with good reasoning ability and a marked mechanical aptitude. Engineering was recommended and it was sug- gested that some form of experimental work would probably suit him best. He has made good progress in motor engineering, and writes: ‘Your advice was very helpful in giving a definite opinion as to vocation where before there was only a hazy idea. I may add that my work is my hobby… Testing on the road appeals particularly?I cannot say exactly why, except that it is the diagnoses of trouble that I like.’
Of the twelve boys in occupations which were not recommended, seven were dissatisfied with their work and three of these had changed to work of the kind recommended, which they were finding congenial. Of the ” dis- satisfied ” cases the following may be quoted. ” A boy of good intelligence and literary ability, who was judged best fitted by temperament for work of an active, varied and independent nature. He was advised to become a journ- alist. He chose banking, which was stated in the Report to be definitely unsuitable. He left the bank after eight months ‘ on the secretary’s advice that banking was very unsuitable for me.’ He then entered a commercial office where the work he states, ‘ though admittedly dull, is much more free and mobile than my work in the bank.’ He adds: ‘ The qualities most needed are docility and ordinary intelligence, which latter I think I have, but not the former… I do not think I ought to be engaged in this sort of work.
Of the five who did not express dissatisfaction, two were somewhat non- committal, while three declared themselves completely satisfied. These three cases are of particular interest to the enquiry, and it is unfortunate that in one of them the subject refused to allow any reference to his case to be made. The second boy aspired to be a solicitor?work which was definitely stated by the Institute to be unsuitable?and entered a legal office with this aim in view. He was confident of achieving his ambition, but as at the time of the enquiry he had done only junior clerical work it was clearly too early for the final judgment. The third case may be quoted “… A nervous boy of very mod- crate intelligence, who wished to become an engineer. He was very unsuccess- ful in tests of practical and mechanical abilities. It was felt that his desire a practical occupation was due merely to a reaction from scholastic pursuits, in which he was painfully conscious of his deficiencies. He was more back- ward than he should have been and private tuition was recommended, with a post of minor responsibility in a library as the objective. He has now spent some months in a fruit farm in Australia. His employer is reported to be satisfied with him and the boy is keenly interested in his work and very happy. It is proposed that he should later attend an agricultural college where, possibly, his troubles may begin.”
The results of the enquiry, so far as this relates to boys at work, may be stated in tabular form as follows: ? Number Content Doubtful Not Content In work judged 21 20 1 o suitable In work judged 12 3 2 7
unsuitable or questionable If, in the above table, the ” doubtful ” cases may be considered equally divided between the ” content ” and the ” not content ” groups, it appears that the Institute’s diagnoses were correct in 28.5 cases out of 33 (over 85 per cent.), and this in a group containing unusually difficult ” problem ” cases. While such a result is far from realizing the hopes of Mr. Huxley and Mr. Shaw, it is yet by no means negligible. Vocational psychology is the youngest of the applied sciences, and if it progresses as rapidly in the next fifty years as it has done in the past ten, it may rank as by no means the least of the con- tributions of the twentieth century to progress.
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