A Method for Determining the Extent and Causes of Retardation in a City School System
- @article{RN15958,
author = {Bryan, J. E.}, title = {A Method for Determining the Extent and Causes of Retardation in a City School System}, journal = {Psychol Clin}, volume = {1}, number = {2}, pages = {41-52}, year = {1907}, type = {Journal Article}
}
The intensive study of social conditions which has character- ized the last fifteen years in England and the last ten years in this country, and the serious efforts now being made to enforce the provisions of compulsory education enactments, have led to the discovery that there are in the public schools not only many children that are properly called feeble-minded and therefore belong in special institutions, but a much larger number of chil- dren that have for one reason or another been unable to make that steady progress in school work which the school system pre- supposes that the normal child should make. For example, the school system regards the normal age of the child in the first grade to be under seven years. A most superficial examination will reveal to every superintendent that there are in his schools many children that are over seven years of age in the first grade. In the first grade of the Camden schools, in the fall of the year 1905, 52.6 per cent of the children were over* seven years of age, the theoretical ago limit of a first grade child; 27 per cent of the children were over eight years of age; 13 per cent were over nine; 7 per cent over ten; 3*/2 per cent over eleven; 2 per cent over twelve; and % of 1 per cent over thirteen. The school system assumes that one year is required for the passage of the normal child through each grade. If the nor- mal first grade child is under seven, the second grade child should be under eight, the third grade child under nine, and the fourth grade child under ten; the eight years of primary and grammar work should be passed through before the child has exceeded his fifteenth year, when he should enter the high school. As a mat- *A11 children are recorded as being over seven years of age who have passed the seventh birthday; they may be under or over eight. A simi- lar explanation applies to each age. (41) 42 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC. ter of fact, 72 per cent of the children in the Camden schools exceed these age limits. The New York City statistics for 1904 show that over 71 per cent of the children in the New York schools exceed these age limits. I am confident that these theoretic limits are usually exceeded in actual practice, and when we consider the fact that in some states children are not admitted to school under six years of age, there may be reason to raise the question of their validity even as theoretic limits. I do not believe that we can consider a child who is under eight years of age in the first grade to be of excessive age for the grade; and in view of the very limited data available thus far in the study of this problem, I have determined, for the purpose of this investigation (as will appear on a later page) to treat no child as being of excessive age for the first grade who was under nine in the fall of the year when these figures were col- lected. Whatever influences may have conspired to bring about the conditions noted above, I believe that we are justified in defining retardation in terms of school progress. No other definition of retardation has equal objectivity. Accordingly, I consider all chil- dren in the first grade who have passed their ninth birthday at the time of the fall registration to be pedagogically retarded; all children in the second grade who have passed their tenth birthday, and by allowing one additional year for each grade in succession, all children in the eighth year who have passed their seventeenth birthday. As school conditions improve, the line that separates those whom we consider to be retarded from those we assume to be normal may be lowered by one or more years. At the sugges- tion of Professor Witmer, I undertook to ascertain the number of children in the schools of Camden who were pedagogically retarded, in order that I might obtain the preliminary data for an investiga- tion into the general causes of retardation. I have worked out my results for the ten thousand children enrolled in the schools of this city according to the plan which I give here in outline. 13y this plan, any superintendent may, with the assistance of his prin- cipals and teachers, obtain satisfactory statistics of progress through the grades in a school system. I desire to lay especial emphasis on the fact that this work greatly assists teachers in the comprehension and conduction of their task and has served to reveal to me many facts connected with this school system which I should otherwise not have known. EXTENT AND CAUSES OF RETARDATION. 43 I began tlie work with an analysis of the enrolment figures for 1904-05 as taken from the school registers, and followed this up with a similar analysis of the enrolment figures for 1905-06. The actual number of children of each age, male and female, in each grade was found, as well as the percentage which each num- ber is of the whole number of pupils in that grade. The table on pages 44 and 45 gives the number of children of each age in each grade and the percentage that these children are of the total num- ber in the grade. The table also gives the percentages which cer- tain groups of children are of the whole number in the grade. Thus one may see for the first grade not only the percentage of pupils of six years of age, of seven years of age, etc., but also the percentage of pupils under seven years, including both five years and six years; also the percentage under eight years and under nine years; and finally the percentage nine years of age and over.. This grouping will be found to be of importance in the subsequent use of the figures representing retardation. Some highly significant conclusions concerning the general progress of children through the grades, which can be reached through an examination of these tables obtained from the enrol- ment, will be pointed out. The range of age in the first grade is from five to sixteen years, in the second grade from five to seventeen years, in the third grade from six to fifteen years, in the fourth grade from seven to seventeen years, in the fifth grade from eight to sixteen years, in the sixth grade from nine to seventeen years, in the seventh grade from ten to eighteen years, and in the eighth grade from eleven to eighteen years. If a child enters school at five years of age,?the minimum legal age in New Jersey,?and advances regularly one grade each year, the lowest age at which he may be found in the first grade is five years, in the second grade six years, in the third grade seven years, in the fourth grade eight years, in the fifth grade nine years, in the sixth grade ten years, in the seventh grade eleven years, and in the eighth grade twelve years. The percentage of children of the minimum age found in the first grade is 10, second grade 5, third grade 4^, fourth grade 2, fifth grade 2VL>, sixth grade 4, seventh grade less than 3, and in the eighth grade 4. If these figures may be regarded as constant for a series of years (and I may note that the statistics for the two years’ 1904-05 and 1905-06 show no significant variations), then it appears from the tables that only 16 per cent of the children 44 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC. The number and percentage of children of each age in each of the eight grades of the Camden schools. The table also shows the percentage of children under certain ages and over the age taken to distinguish the children considered retarded from those considered to have shown normal progress. Age jNumber … Grade [Percentage. I. 604 16.25 6 I 7 958 1158 31.15 47.4 25.77 73.17 494 13.29 9 237 6.3S 10 136 3.66 11 12 69 | 33 1.8 ! 0.9 13 20 0.5 14 7 0.02 15 16 17 18 86.47 i 13.53 Grade II. (Number … Percentage. tt II 7 109 0.3 4.96 5.28 503 22.89 28.17 600 27.31 55.48 448 268 133 75 38 8 20.39 12.2 6.05 3.4 1.7 0.4 75.87 i 24.1 4 0.1 3 1 0.1 0.04 Number . . Percentage Grade j ” ” 4.5 III. Grade IV. Number . .. Percentage. 3 93 0.1 ! 4.33 297 13.8 18.3 561 26.14 44.44 470 21.9 66.34 317 ; 238 14.77 ! 11.1 33.64 115 5.36 42 1.96 10 0.4 2 40 0 1 2.15 2.26 236 12.7 14.96 397 21.36 36.32 469 25.24 61.56 363 j 245 19.54 | 13.18 89 14 2 | 1 4.79 ; 0.7 0.1 I 0.05 38.43 EXTENT AND CAUSES OF RETARDATION. 45 Age Grade V. Grade VII. Grade VIII. (Number . . | Percentage. 9 3 I 29 0.2 2.23 2.46 10 I 11 ‘ 12 1 13 14 15 16 17 . 18 274 128 50 4 21 9.8 3.8 0.3 135 | 305 373 10.3 i 23.4 28.7 12.76 36.16 Number … Percentage 64.9 1 | 33 120 0.1 3.8 13.9 35 Grade ” ” j 3.9 VI. ” ” ! 17.8 Number .. . Percentage 0.4 198 22.9 40.7 250 164 75 17 5 28.9 19 8.7 1.9 0.6 67.76 30.24 10 2.23 2.67 49 10.9 13.6 114 128 87 46 11 2 25.4 28.5 19.3 10.2 2.47 0.4 39 67.5 ? 32.5 Number | | j 1 10 Percentage …. 0.4 3.7 4.08 46 90 82 27 11 2 17 33.4 30.4 10 4 0.7 21 44.6 85 14.8 46 TEE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC. enter school at the earliest legal age; that less than 20 per cent of the children who enter school at five years complete the first year’s work in one year, that less than 16 per cent complete two grades in two years, and that less than 7 per cent complete three grades in three years. The age of the maximum number of children in each grade is shown to be six years in the first grade, 31 per cent of all the children in the grade being of this age; eight years in the second grade, 27 per cent being of this age; nine years in the third grade, with 26 per cent; eleven years in the fourth grade with 25 per cent; twelve years in the fifth grade with 29 per cent; thirteen years in the sixth grade with 29 per cent; fourteen years in the seventh grade with 29 per cent; and fourteen years in the eighth grade with 33 per cent. The greatest number of children of any one age found in each grade is thus shown to range from one- fourth to one-third of all the children in that grade. Considering the progress of this maximum number of chil- dren in each grade, it is found that one year is lost between the first and second grades and another between the third and fourth grades, i. e., that it requires six .years for this maximum number of children to complete the first four grades of school work. It is to be noted that this conclusion does not of necessity apply to the majority, though it is probable that it does. In grades five to eight the maximum number found to be of one age in each grade increases in percentage and advances regularly one year with each grade through the seventh. The maximum number for the eighth grade is of the same ago as for the seventh, thus indicating that this maximum number does four years of work in three years of time, a result due probably to the rapid falling off in the enrolment of older pupils in the sev- enth and eighth grades. Before we can arrive at a definite conclusion as to the extent of retardation and its causes, we must establish some standard of normality. A line of demarcation must be drawn upon some principle between normal and backward ages in each grade. In establishing this line, the chief consideration has been the fact that attendance upon school becomes compulsory at the age of seven. If the assumption that practically all children can bo entered in school promptly upon the completion of the seventh year were warranted, as well as the further assumption that practically all normal children may be expected to complete the work of the EXTENT AND CAUSES OF RETARDATION. 47 first grade in one year, tlien it would seem that any child found in the first grade in his eighth year of age should be considered backward. If this age limit is taken to separate those children whom we shall consider backward from the other children in the first grade, we find from the figures of the preceding table that 47 per cent of the children are over age for their respective grades. In view of the fact that this is an initial investigation into the gen- eral conditions of progress through the grades for the purpose of determining the causes of retardation, I have thought it desirable to set the limit even beyond this and to include within the normal age all those whose age was over eight but under nine. In consequence, for the purpose of this investigation, chil- dren under nine in the first grade are considered to have made normal progress: children who are nine or over have been sepa- rated into a group by themselves for purposes of study as chil- dren manifesting retardation in school work. For the other grades, one year is added successively to this limit. Whatever error we may have made in fixing this line of separation, it is safe to assume that it is on the side of con- servatism. It is an extreme limit. Upon this basis, of the enrolment in each grade for 1905-06 the percentage of backward pupils is as follows: Grade 1 13V2 per cent. ” 2 24 ” ” 3 332/3 ” ” 4 38l/2 ” ” 5 35 ” ” ” c, 30V4 ” 7 321 /? ” ” 8 147/s ” All grades 2GV3 ” From the enrolment for 1004-05, the backward pupils in all grades amounted to 2G per cent,?a difference of only one-third of one per cent. The extent of backwardness having thus been determined ac- cording to the standard adopted, the next problem was to learn the conditions under which it existed and if possible the causes. To do this a census of all the children in the schools was taken, involving the following points: I. Name. Residence. 48 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC. 1. Age in years and months. 2. Number of years in school. 3. Length of time in present class. 4. Present progress. 5. Attendance. 6. Sight. 7. Hearing. 8. General health. 9. Special data as to inattention, mental deficiency, and bad conduct. Special forms were printed and distributed to all the teachers. All of the data asked for were to be found in the school records except those concerning the sight, hearing, general health, and special data as to inattention, mental deficiency and bad conduct; and of these the conditon of sight and hearing alone required special investigation. For the investigation of the sight and hearing, especial preparation was made. Snellen test cards, both the alphabet and gridiron or illiterate types, were provided for each school. The medical inspector and the superintendent conducted a demonstration in the auditorium of the high school, to which the teachers were invited. Pupils of the first, second, and third grades were examined and the methods and results were discussed fully. After this, the medical inspector and the superintendent visited each school in the city, and conducted a demonstration with six or eight children in the presence of the teachers, who asked questions very freely and assisted with the work. The teachers then proceeded to make their own examina- tions, taking regular school time for it. The reports give evidence of very careful work on the part of the teachers. The instructions were not issued in printed form, as it was found much better to make the plan clear by personal demonstra- tion. The points brought out in the demonstration may bo described as follows: Sight Test. 1. The cards are of two kinds, viz.: the gridiron or illiterate card for use with children of the first grade, and the alphabet card for use with children who know the letters. The distance at which each line of characters may bo seen normally is marked on the card. EXTENT. AND CAUSES OF RETARDATION. 49 2. The card is to be hung up on the wall or blackboard directly in front of an open space or aisle, so that as good light as possible may fall upon the card. Care should be taken to avoid direct sunlight and strong reflections. Ideal light condi- tions may not be possible. Take conditions that are ordinarily good. A few rooms may be too dark to be used at all. An espe- cially bright day is not essential for the test. Fair weather con- ditions are all that is required. 3. The card is to be hung up in the room at such a height that the third line from the bottom (the 20 ft. line) is about level with the eyes of the larger number of the children in the room when standing. 4. Mark off with crayon on the floor directly in front of the card distinct lines at distances of 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, and 20 feet from the card. 5. To test the first grade pupils: Use the gridiron or illiterate card. Test each pupil sepa- rately. First, have him come near the card, say 3 feet away. Show him in what direction the fingers of the characters point. Have him show with his hands how the characters point, his fingers pointing as the fingers of the characters do. As soon as he shows a clear understanding of these directions and responds readily, and also shows that he sees readily at this distance the small characters on the card, let him go back to the 20 foot dis- tance. Point first at the large characters in the upper lines, then go down more or less rapidly to the 20 foot line. If he indicates the directions without hesitation, he may be recorded as seeing well at 20 feet. If he makes mistakes or hesitates markedly, let him advance to the 18 foot line or to such line as is necessary for good vision, and so record the distance. The promptness of the response and oftentimes the facial expression are good indications of the degree of clearness of vision. When marked hesitation or strain is shown, he should advance to the next line. The teacher will recognize at once the distinct advantage of having small children rospond with movements of hand and fingers to indicate the directions in which the characters point rather than to say “up,’ “down,” “right,’’ “left.” The teacher will also be careful to stand on the side of the card away from the light in order to avoid shadows upon the card. 6. To test second and higher grade pupils: Use the alphabet card. Very brief explanations will be found sufficient. Sometimes the gridiron card may be used to 50 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC. advantage by way of verification in doubtful cases witli children of the second and higher grades. Record the distance at which vision is reasonably clear and prompt. 7. Glasses. In case a pupil wears glasses, test and record his vision both with and without glasses. 8. In case a pupil’s vision is below 18 feet, test each eye separately by having him cover the other eye in the case of larger pupils, and by covering the other eye for him in the case of smaller pupils. Eecord each distance and also the distance with both eyes. 9. Use regular school time for the work. Its importance justifies the time spent upon it. Let two teachers work together, each teacher testing her own pupils in turn. The teacher who is to make the tests first will send her pupils into the other teacher’s room, where the pupils of the two rooms will sit together, engag- ing in such exercises as may be found practicable under the cir- cumstances. The pupils are then sent, three or four at a time, into the other room to be tested. If too many pupils are present in the testing room at one time, there is a strong probability that those tested last will have some familiarity with the characters on the card and may remember certain characters rather than see them clearly. On the other hand, for each pupil to have seen one or two others examined is of advantage, as it saves time of explanation. When this teacher has examined all of her own pupils, she will take charge of the combined classes while the other teacher examines hers, using whichever room is the more favorable. In some schools it may be found necessary to use the same room for several classes. Test of Hearing. The only test’ of hearing that seems practicable in a school room located in a building where other classes are in session is one which is essentially a school room test and in no sense an exact quantitative measurement, viz., the simple voice test. This i3 assuming that an audiometer is not available. The simple voice test will reveal almost any defect of hear- ing that is sufficiently serious of itself to interfere with school progress. Directions: Stand the pupil at a distance of 15 or 18 feet from the teacher, his back to the teacher. Instruct him to repeat each word the teacher pronounces. Give a series of six or eight words, one at a time, unrelated in meaning and employing differ- EXTENT AND CAUSES OF RETARDATION. 51 , ent sounds. If they are correctly repeated, the pupil’s hearing mny be regarded as normal as far as his school room work is concerned. If he does not hear or mistakes the sounds, let the teachcr approach until near enough to be heard, using the same tone of voice. The distance at which the words are heard indi- cates the relative condition of his hearing. Let the distance be recorded. As was noted above, all the other data could be obtained from the school records or from the teacher’s knowledge of the pupil. The results of the examinations made by each teacher were embodied in a report, on the forms prepared for this purpose, and these reports have all been summarized by grades. We have thus been furnished with a wealth of statistical data thoroughly organized and tabulated, the elaboration of which has already grown to the proportions of a monograph of considerable size. The purpose of this paper is to outline the method by which the work may be done. So much interest is being taken throughout the country in the study of backwardness or retardation in school children and so many questions are asked as to a proper method of investigating the subject, that it seemed desirable that an out- line should be presented in order that we may have a basis for wider discussion and more widespread investigation. In my judgment, whatever plan is employed, it must be one that will lend itself readily to the use of the class teacher. I he time is not at hand when communities are in position to employ competent investigators to carry on this work, and there is grave doubt as to whether competent investigators are avail- able in any considerable number outside of the schools. There are two reasons, then, why the work should be undertaken by the present teaching corps of the schools: firstj because it can bo done without delay, and, secondly, because this is the agency that !s most competent to learn the task. The problems involved appeal to all progressive teachers? they are in position to grasp the essential points at once; they are ready to co-operate in an intelligent effort to find a means of increasing the efficiency of their work. Simply to call their at- tention to the problem or even to emphasize the necessity of solving it does not suffice. What is needed is direct and specific instruction as to the series of ordered steps to be followed. The grade teacher has a most important part to play in this work, but Jt is not surprising that she plays no part when impossible tasks are vaguely suggested and no one stands ready to order and direct the first move. 52 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC. My experience has shown me that the teachers take np the work readily and very intelligently, and that it broadens the educational horizon of both teacher and superintendent. It shows us the child from a different point of view and begets an interest that is personal, vital, and pervasive. To have the work done by any one other than the teacher would be, in my judgment, to lose a large part of the benefit that should come to the school system as a result of the investigation.
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