An Educational Experiment with Trouble Some Adolescent Boys
- Author:
Arthur Holmes, Ph.D.,
University of Pennsylvania.
The boy problem is difficult of solution at any age. It waxes acute, however, at the critical period of a boy’s life technically called adolescence, beginning with the age of twelve and running until about nineteen. It is at this particular time that the great changes of life both physical and mental come upon him, the main directions of his life are fixed, and the foundations of his character deeply laid. It is a period of stress and strain, of Sturm und Drang, which marks the transition from the boy to the man.
It is the period of such paradoxical impulses as intense desires for selfhood and noble aspirations to self-sacrifice. Physically, the change appears in an extremely rapid growth in height, amounting in some exceptional cases to nine and one half inches in a year. The bones and the muscles lengthen without a proportionate thickening. As a result, the early adolescent is exceedingly clumsy in all of his movements. This inaccurate and unharmonious adjustment of physical organs is an analogue of the intense emotional reactions and the mal-adjustments to society characteristic of this period. At this time also truancy with its attendant crimes makes a strong appeal. As Dr Stanley Ilall points out in his “Adolescence,” the statistics of Italy, Germany and France show a rapid rise in criminality beginning at fourteen. For example, in Italy which is typical of all countries, the number of criminals per thousand leaps from 1.29 below fourteen to 6.01 from fourteen to eighteen among males. Of 43,835 sentences pronounced upon German criminals, 41 per cent were inflicted upon boys under twenty-one years of age. On the other hand, this is equally a period of religious enthusiasm. In statistics of churches and of special students like Starbuck and others we find that fully 75 per cent of the men join the churches in their teens. At the same time statistics among the twenty-six million Sunday-School scholars in the world show that 75 per cent of the boys leave Sunday-School in their teens. These diverse phenomena can only be accounted for by the exceedingly heterogeneous and diverse impulses fermenting in the changing and struggling soul of the boy in his transition from boyhood to manhood.
The study of the phenomena of adolescence has been too general ; boys have been treated in masses; statistics in great numbers have been gathered. They have been carefully added and divided and averaged. But results apply to masses only. ]STone of them can be applied to any particular boy with any marked degree of certainty. The outcome is that in the very period when the egoism of the youth demands- the most special and individual study and sympathy, very few are ready or able to give it to him. In entire harmony with the general character of the investigation of adolescents, remedial measures are also marked with a deadening uniformity and monotony. Nearly all of them can be reduced to two chief classes, elimination and confinement. If a boy easily adjusts himself to the environment in which he finds himself growing up, all well and good. If his environment is not suited to his nature the one general and persistent method of curing him is to eliminate him from the number of so-called normals. This process is followed out in various gradations beginning from the top and going down the scale toward criminal institutions. He is suspended from the school, then he is expelled from the school, then he is put in a special class for incorrigibles, then he is handed over to the House of Detention, to the probation officers, and finally to the Reform School. In the last place the method is changed and henceforth he is not eliminated but confined, and confined by physical force df necessary. Through all the various stages in the application of the so-called remedial measures, the fitting of the environment to the boy is seldom if ever undertaken. The assumption is made with the force of an axiom that the institutions are correct and fixed. Woe unto the boy that will not fit into them! He is atypical, abnormal, subnormal, incorrigible, criminal.
What are these boys really like? Are there any boys who cannot be adjusted to a suitable and yet normal environment? What measures must be employed to secure the favorable adjustment of the so-called bad boy to his social environment? In the hope of throwing some light upon these questions, an experiment was undertaken by the Psychological Laboratory and Clinic of the University of Pennsylvania in the summer of 1910. A special class for troublesome adolescent boys was organized by the writer under the direction of Dr Witmer, and was conducted for six weeks by the Psychological Clinic of the University. The class began on July 5th, and continued until August 13th, contemporaneous with the regular sessions of the summer school. The experiment was undertaken with a number of objectives in view. In the first place, it was the intention of the Psychological Clinic to make a special detailed and individual study of a number of boys who had given trouble at home or in school. Second, the effort was made to see if such boys could be managed in a class and held together for a period of six weeks. Third, the physical, intellectual and temperamental disposition of each boy was taken into consideration and every effort made to correct any abnormalities, to take cognizance of any natural peculiarities and to make adjustments of conditions to these where necessary. Fourth, the boys were to be held in the class, not by physical force, but by making an appeal to the adolescent interests which were assumed to be rich and varied enough to hold them during the period of instruction and to serve as a basis for the control of conduct during their later lives. This was done by providing intellectual, physical, manual and recreative studies and exercises under the leadership of persons experienced in dealing with boys.
Thirteen boys were gathered together, twelve from their own homes and one from a charitable society. Their ages ranged from eleven to fifteen years. Only two of the boys were eleven years of age and only one was fifteen, so that there was not a great disparity in their chronological ages. There were, however, great differences both in their physiological and psychological ages. The largest was a boy of twelve, who weighed 122.6 pounds and was 5.6 feet tall; the smallest, only six months younger, was a diminutive, round-faced chap, weighing 57.6 pounds and 4.4 feet tall. Their mentality ranged all the way from middle-grade imbecility to marked ability. Generally speaking, no two boys were alike in any respect, even in the case of two brothers. Probably a better impression of the varied temperamental and mental types and the pedagogical difficulties with which the leader was confronted can be gained from the first impressions recorded by their teacher, Mr. Norman Cameron. Here are a few selections from his interesting notes: ? A TYPICAL GROUP OF YOUNG ADOLESCENT BOYS. THE SPECIAL CLASS CONDUCTED BY THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC, UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA, JULY 5 TO AUGUST 13, 1910, A TYPICAL GROUP OF YOUNG ADOLESCENT BOYS. THE SPECIAL CLASS CONDUCTED BY THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC, UNIVERSITY OP PENNSYLVANIA, JULY 5 TO AUGUST 13, 1910, AN EDUCATIONAL EXPERIMENT. 159 “A. is a nervous boy, who seems pretty well pleased with the situation.” “B. looks as good as gold.” “C. seems a normal child, as he is supposed to be, but like so many boys of his early school training he has been allowed to do as he pleases.” “D. has an indifferent attitude toward the work, perhaps because he does not care to attend school in the summer time. He seems to behave like a sneak.” “E. is glad to be in school.” “F. seems sullen and shy.” “G. seems bright. lie is fond of reading and being read to.” “H. is quiet, but seems indifferent to school work. He is easily influenced by others.” “J. is bright and always in the limelight. He likes praise.” “K. is tall and knock-kneed. lie is ashamed of his great height. He is stubborn and hard to manage. He is sullen when crossed. He likes praise, but cannot stand censure.” “L. showed early that he wanted to boss the others, and run things in general. He lounged in his chair and was a source of annoyance to the other boys, although they were willing to take part under his leadership. Being so much larger than most of the boys, he assumes a sort of overlordship.” Added to these temperamental divergencies were the wide differences in their standing by grades. One was in the sixth grade; eight were rated as fifth-grade scholars, in ages ranging from fourteen to eleven; two, aged fifteen and thirteen, were in the fourth grade; and two of eleven and twelve were in the third grade.
In addition to the above general description, it was found in examinations made at the Psychological Clinic preliminary to the entrance of the boys into the class that six were moral delinquents, having stolen from their homes or other places. Of these one had been arrested and two were in the charge of probation officers of the Juvenile Court. Of the other seven, one was normal, two were backward and morally delinquent, and four were merely backward m their school work. In every case there was some reason which made the parents anxious to have their boys put under special training, the only exception being one normal boy, who accompanied his brother for the sake of companionship. Taken as a whole, a more difficult group of boys could scarcely be found, whether it was a question of pursuing the ordinary methods used in the public schools or any form of group or class work. It was not then with any enthusiastic hopes of producing marked results in terms of intellectual or moral improvement that the class was organized. The short space of six weeks, for five days in the week and seven hours of the day, would forbid any such anticipation. The project must be looked upon as an experiment to find out whether any organization or arrangement could be effected by which this group of boys could be kept together, out of mischief for six weeks and at the same time given positive impulses toward right living.
Promptly at 9 a. m, on July 5th, the prospective students of the special class came trooping in. Some were ready and eager to begin; a few felt the plan was a scheme devised by parents and others to deprive them of their vacation. On the whole, they acted normally, exhibiting the natural curiosity, excitement, and expectation of any dozen boys. Their teacher, Mr. Norman Cameron, principal of the West Chester High School, and formerly superintendent of schools at Elkton, Md., was on hand and they were quickly conducted to the three rooms in the basement of College Hall set aside for their classes.
The first day was devoted to getting acquainted. The teacher found himself confronted with an entirely novel situation. The diversity of temperament and intellectual qualifications has already been mentioned. In the opening days it seemed appalling. Out of this boisterous, unruly, individualistic crowd was to be formed a fairly regular and respectable class of scholars. How to do it was a task of no mean magnitude.
The natural aloofness of strange boys from each other was accentuated by the well-known fact that it was a special class. Each youngster was an object of suspicion. Each wondered why the others were there. Some of this feeling persisted against a few members and led to their permanent exclusionfrom intimate association with the rest. The order of the day’s exercises was as follows: 9 a. m to 10.30 a. m.?Class work. 10.30 a. m. to 11.45 a. m.?Manual training. 11.45 a. m. to 12.30 p. m.?Lunch. 12.30 p. m. to 1.30 p. m.?Gymnasium. 1.30 p. m. to 2 p. M.-?Class work. AN EDUCATIONAL EXPERIMENT. 161 2 p. m. to 3 r. m.?Swimming. 3 p. m. to 4 p. m.?Outdoor games, visits to museums, gardens, etc.
The chief end aimed at in making up the schedule was to introduce as much variety as was consistent with good results in each branch. It was understood that with boys suffering from malnutrition, physical defects of sense organs, possible imbecility, nervousness, irregular habits, lack of sufficient sleep, and enervating habits common to adolescents, fatigue would set in surprisingly soon in any task demanding application. Its baneful influence upon attention, upon efficiency and quality of production, and its widespread and protracted toxic effects have been made known by such experimentalists as Mosso, and noted by all workers with defectives, such as Seguin, Barr, Ireland and others. Therefore, the first care was to form a varied and balanced schedule which would avoid the deadly monotony of the school room and give opportunity for the elimination of fatigue products by intermittent exercises in gymnasium, pool and open air. The luncheon was considered as important as any feature of the day’s exercises. Care was taken to secure a clean, simple lunch, consisting of sandwiches, milk and dessert, prepared and served under supervision in a neighboring restaurant. The opportunity was not neglected to make this occasion a training time in table-manners and in courtesy to one another. An hour was chosen when the dining-room was occupied by the boys alone, and as much home-likeness introduced as possible. This factor, with some of the boys, was by no means insignificant.
The regular class work was begun on the first day with an examination of each boy’s pedagogical standing. A test was made in arithmetic, geography, history, reading, spelling, and oral repetition, using the regular questions belonging to that boy’s particular grade in the public school. From this examination each boy was graded and his intellectual training was begun at the point where he needed instruction. The examination developed .very wide differences between the mental acquisition of the various boys. This must be sharply distinguished from their mental capacities which were discovered at a previous examination in the Psychological Clinic. As a result, it was necessary to deal with almost every boy individually. They did not fall into groups or classes which could be easily handled. It did develop that groups of three and four could be formed in the studies named above, but the same indi162 TIIE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC. viduals were not in the same grades in all their studies. For example, three might read together, but the same three might not do arithmetic together. Individual instruction then was the first necessity, and whatever progress was made in intellectual development in the school room was due to the untiring and patient efforts of the teacher with each individual boy. Added to this, were the great differences in temperament, as indicated in the teacher’s report given above. Therefore, not only did each boy require specific intellectual training, but special disciplinary treatment. The regular school books of the public schools of Philadelphia were used for the various studies in the class. The usual methods in the school room were pursued as far as possible. The chief differences in method arose from the fact that the teacher was able to come into closer individual touch with each of the thirteen boys than would have been possible in a school room containing forty or sixty pupils. He was also able to add object lessons by means of visits to exhibitions in various museums. Arery soon it was found impossible for one teacher alone to do the best work. Consequently Mr. F. 1ST. Maxfield, a teacher in the Germantown Friends’ School, and a graduate student in the University Department of Psychology, was secured to give the daily instruction in manual work.
Thus the hours of book-learning were varied and lightened. Instead of beginning in the prescribed way with the fundamentals of tool-handling and sloyd, each boy was presented with sufficient material to manufacture one object. lie was given a concrete piece of work to do. His first attempt was the manufacture of a small wind-mill. This was chosen because it was the simplest piece of mechanism which moved and which could be made in the time and under the circumstances. It offered two incentives to the best endeavor: first, something to be made, and, secondly, something that would go. Furthermore, each boy was permitted to work as rapidly as lie chose. Some of the boys finished their wind-mills long before the others, and these completed specimens became objects of emulation to the others. The speed in the class was not proportionate to the age of the boys. Some of the older ones were extremely slow, while some of the younger ones finished first and did the best work. Physical strength had something to do with the handling of tools, though all of the boys were strong enough to perform the required operations. By this method a large element of personal initiative was permitted each workman. The aim was to produce results, not in terms of the material work accomplished, ? but in the effect upon each boy; in the amount of self-stimula164 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC. tion which was developed; in the perseverence necessary to complete one piece of work; in the ingenuity brought out by shortcut methods and simpler and quicker operations; in the interest, attention, spontaneity and enjoyment of the undertaking. The purpose in view was to create in each boy an attitude of interesting and enjoyable play rather than the laborious effort to perform a given task.
After the wind-mill had been built, basket weaving was taken up. In this occupation the mental effect was markedly changed by the utility of the object made. Before the boys were engaged in making toys; now they were engaged in the far more serious performance of manufacturing useful utensils, which were to be taken home and incorporated as part of the furniture of the household. The enjoyment of the processes did not seem to depart on account of this. In fact, the interest seemed to deepen with the seriousness of the work. Emulation to finish first, as well as to do the best work entered into the task. A great deal of natural pride manifested itself. Here again, as in carpentry, the best work was not done by the oldest boys. TIence, there was no foregone conclusion as to which one would do the quickest and best work, and therefore there was no hopelessness on the part of any one in the class. Each boy seemed to have a chance, and each boy did his work with a zest.
Altogether the manual work acted as a strong stimulus upon the whole day’s conduct of the boy, both in the school room and in his behavior outside. It was frequently used as an incitement to better endeavor in more tedious tasks and the privilege of attending this class was made conditional upon general good behavior. Though the work was primarily individual, it was at the same time social. All the boys were working upon the same thing. The constant interest in one another’s progress, their interchange of questions, suggestions, tools and material, emphasized the social factor and did as much as almost anything else to amalgamate the varied elements into a wellworking whole.
In addition to the hand work of manual training, there were daily physical exercises. The physical instruction consisted of swimming and regular gymnastic class exercises in the University gymnasium, as well as games conducted both indoors and out. The class work was conducted daily from 12.30 to 1.30 by an instructor in the gymnasium. Calisthenics were chiefly practiced. Light, brisk movements performed in series, at the word of command, without music, were calculated to fix wandering attention and to demand promptness and co-ordination without physical over-taxing of the untrained muscles. One of the most noticeable improvements in the whole six weeks’ course came in response to this portion of the training.
At first it was utterly impossible to secure anything like regularity in physical movements. There was no order, rhythm or co-ordination among the different individuals. Each boy kept his own time and tried to follow the leader as best he could. Individuals themselves showed no co-ordination in their movements. Their positions ranged all the way from extremely bad to fairly good. Squeer’s famous class, as described by Dickens, hardly surpassed them for individual idiosyncrasies. Their physical movements were slow, laggard, spasmodic, rapid, regular, decisive. Flat chests, due to former adenoid conditions, were especially common. The usual slouching, drooping position of the truant, the pilferer, the morally weak and physically unfit was well represented. In one instance at least the atavistic stoop forward, with bent knees and low-swinging hands, marked the mentally defective. From the more detailed and individual description of the boys and their improvement given later, a clearer idea of the results will be obtained.
Here it is sufficient to say that gradually co-ordination began A WARD OF THE JUVENILE COURT 14 TEARS OLD IN THE FIFTH GRADE, VERY RESPONSIVE TO GOOD COMPANIONSHIP AND A WHOLESOME ENVIRONMENT, HAS -IMPROVED AND PROMISES WELL FOR THE FUTURE UNDER SKILLFUL HANDLING. to develop in the class as a wliole. They followed their leader more closely; they were more rhythmic in their motions and kept better time. Exercises which had seemed utterly hopeless at first were progressively acquired and performed with a certain neatness and dispatch. The conduct of the class as a whole became better; more attention was given to the instructor’s orders, exercises were begun promptly and continued the required time. The boys improved in their treatment of each other. Slowly an esprit de corps crept in, and before the six weeks were up a fairly well organized gymnastic class had emerged from the first day’s crowd of unmanageable fellows. The swimming hour in the afternoon was, perhaps, the most desired and the happiest of all the hours of the day. All the boys, except one who complained of the shock, looked forward to it with the greatest eagerness. N~o punishment was severer than the deprivation of this privilege. No other exercise was entered into with more zeal and enjoyment.
The hour was not one of mere promiscuous splashing in the water. The exercises were under the direction of a regular attendant at the swimming pool. He was always present at the waterside giving instruction i-n diving and directions in making the first strokes of swimming. Every bather was furnished with a swimming belt which permitted him the fullest freedom in the pool without risk of danger if he got beyond his depth. The most timid speedily acquired confidence, and the two who already knew how to swim, increased their proficiency. All of the boys became thoroughly familiar with the water, with the exhilarating effects of a cold shower, and some of them learned to swim. The good effects were both physical and spiritual. A daily shower and plunge in clean water was a novelty to some and had its consequent salutary results. Besides that, the instinctive impulse of the boy to take to the water was thoroughly gratified, and the enjoyment was unmixed with any consciousness of breaking laws or any fear of consequences.
Besides swimming, the class frequently engaged in the American game of baseball, sometimes indoors and sometimes outdoors. The game was always played under direction, and true sportsmanship was emphasized rather than merely winning. Sides were chosen under the leadership of two older boys, and a series of games lasting through the term were played. It was an interesting fact that fair play was at a premium, and any trickery, di?AN ED UCATIONAL EXPERIMENT. 167 honesty or foul play met with immediate condemnation from the hoys themselves.
Visits to museums played a large and integral part in the general scheme. Interesting trips were made to Independence Hall, Carpenter’s Hall, old Christ Church, Franklin’s grave, Horticultural and Memorial Halls, and one afternoon was spent at the Zoological Gardens. The Archaeological Museums of the University were always at hand with their vast storehouses of monuments, curiosities, weapons, implements of the chase and rel-ics of ancient civilization, things absorbingly fascinating to youths at just this stage. The Commercial Museums, also within easy reach, added another store of exhibits from modern arts and commerce. Transportation methods, with vehicles of all kinds, from primitive palanquins to models of modern express trains and aeroplanes, had enough “go” in them to make the four trips outings of genuine pleasure. One tour of inspection was made through the works of the Otto gas engine factory, and the various processes of making automobile engines was followed to the delight and life-long instruction of minds eager to know the inside of everything. The climax of enjoyment was reached in the last two days and one night of the term spent in camping along the shore of the Delaware River in ISTew Jersey. The wood-chopping and water-carrying had to be done by the campers themselves, and fair division of labor became a point of the finest discrimination. Of course, the shirker was there. But the threat of being sent home brought him to liis knees with pleas and promises of everlasting diligence if only permitted to stay.
one of the outings were Sunday-school picnics. Conduct was never all that could be desired. Trying moments came to teachers or leaders 011 all occasions. Privileges were abused, acts of disobedience were frequent, quarrels arose, outbreaks of untamed and untrained natures were to be expected at any moment. Xothing really serious, however, occurred. Every misdemeanor was made the occasion of driving home some lesson. The promise of other outings was itself made the check of riotous conduct and the inspiration to better work on less interesting tasks. One illustration will show how this was done, and also, though this was an extreme case, indicate the kind of bad behavior indulged in. Upon the trip home from the Zoological Gardens the natural instincts of a street-gamin broke out at the sight of a passing wagon with a rear step. In a moment, before he could be stopped, he had darted out in the street and was proudly ensconced upon the tempting point of advantage. Just as quickly the driver leaped down and eliminated the intruder with a broad-toed boot. !Not to be outdone in street tactics, the boy seized a brick and would have returned the driver’s treatment in like kind had the teacher not precipitated himself into the fray and stopped further hostilities. The boy ethics involved are interesting. Neither the youngster himself nor any of the others thought his act merited rebuke. To most of the group he was a hero. ITe had promptly met violence with violence. Stealing a ride was a boy’s right. Wagons had no business with rear steps. Drivers ought to let boys ride, or at most, simply yell at them to get off.
It was a difficult task to modify the ethics of the street, but it was done. Upon pain of remaining at home on the next outing, ride-stealing was prohibited. Boys’ rights and boys’ limitations were emphatically defined and illustrated, and from that time on street conduct became a matter of new and serious consideration by these products of the city’s jungles, who had unthinkingly accepted the law of cunning against cunning, fleetness against fleetness, and force against force. For a large part of the supervision, and the many activities included under the general term of social work, the services of A BACKWARD BOY 11 YEARS OLD IN THE SECOND GRADE. A BACKWARD BOY 11 YEARS OLD IN THE SECOND GRADE.
Miss Anna C. Campion, in charge of the Social Service Department connected with the Psychological Clinic, and her assistant, Miss Ingeborg Schanche, were invaluable. One of these two ladies frequently accompanied the boys to their luncheon and impressed upon those who needed it the proper decorum to be observed on such occasions. Much larger and far more vital was the close connection established through the social workers with the homes and parents of each scholar. This was done under the direction of Miss Campion through a number of volunteer workers. Every home was visited at least once, and some as often as six times during the six weeks. In the case of two boys under the care of the Juvenile Aid Society and the Children’s Bureau, respectively, the visiting was done by the societies interested, but in all other cases visits were made by Psychological Clinic assistants. In all thirtyfour such calls were made and voluminous notes taken of home and neighborhood conditions, sanitation, attitude of parents and any other items bearing upon the welfare of the charges. To these were added oral and written reports of parents, some of whom also visited the class. To the corps of social workers also fell the task of taking boys who needed treatment to specialists, or to various medical and surgical clinics, besides overseeing certain of the prescribed treatments. At least fifty-five such visits were made chiefly for eye, ear and nose and throat treatments. K. went regularly three times a week for chronic otitis, and A. nine times, also for ear trouble. G. went repeatedly for eye treatment; J. was compelled to seek the surgical clinic five times because of a sprained finger, and nearly all the others went at one time or another for examination or treatment. Out of the thirteen, only three, or about 23 per cent were in such physical condition that they did not imperatively need immediate therapeutic treatment. Of the three, all had had previous attention at home. One had been sent to an oculist for eye refraction, and the other two had just recovered from adenoid-tonsil operations. Therefore, 100 per cent of these troublesome adolescents, within six months of the end of the term, had suffered from various physical defects closely associated with mental retardation and moral delinquency.
It is manifestly impossible in the space of one brief article to give a detailed account of the individual results. In order to give some idea of what was accomplished, four typical cases are here described, with a brief summary of their mental, physical, and moral status at the inception of their summer’s training, the appar170 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC. ent impress of the school upon them and the last reports from home.
L. was first brought to the Psychological Clinic for examination on February 23, 1910. He was then thirteen years old, and both a mentally backward and morally troublesome scholar in the fourth grade of the public school. lie could read fairly well in the fourth reader, and was reported to be so fond of reading Alger books that he would rather stay in the house and read than play, lie knew something of fractions, but failed utterly to reason out simple problems. Some of his teachers thought that lie was feebleminded. On account of his conduct lie had been expelled from one school. In the school which he was then attending he had been dismissed from one teacher’s room to another, and was then a possible candidate for a special school. His bad conduct in the school room was summed up in his making grimaces, moving about, talking aloud without permission, criticizing the teacher and advising her what to do.
His physical examination showed that an adenoid operation had been performed when he was eleven years old, but that he was suffering from chronic pharyngitis, chronic otitis, and enlarged tonsils. His heart was normal in size, although there was a marked accentuation of all valvular sounds, with concomitant cyanosis of the hands and feet. No canine or molar teeth had ever appeared at first dentition, and the canines in the upper jaw of the second set were lacking. In general appearance he was anaemic, with a peculiar dead and waxlike complexion, tall, thin, and under-nourished. A general liang-dog expression was noticeable about his face. There was a suspicion of some habit?excessive cigarette smoking, sexual perversion or drug habit?which never could be verified. He was post-pubescent. Nothing in the family history, nor in the boy’s life, indicated that he was mentally deficient. He appeared to be a borderland case, and as such was admitted to the summer class.
During the six weeks of the summer school he was sent to the eye clinic and glasses were fitted. In school he was at first almost unmanageable, and continued to be somewhat unruly to the end. After the first week his improvement was marked, and his bad outbursts of temper gradually diminished. At times his smile was happy and winning, but usually his features, ashen-pale, were set in a tense, morose, discouraged, secret and forbidding expresAN EDUCATIONAL EXPERIMENT. Ill sion. By fits and starts lie did very good class work, but at other times did nothing at all, seemingly on account of his inferior physical condition and low vitality, though no specific disease could be detected. In the gymnasium and in the swimming pool he exhibited his best powers and took an interest in general athletic sports. His temper led him into frequent quarrels with other boys, which would often have ended in a fight had there been no interference by the teacher. Last reports from home say that he is “getting along all right,” so that his summer’s training, short as it was, appears to have had a salutary effect.
E. first made the acquaintance of the Psychological Clinic when he was fourteen years old, in February, 1910. He was introduced to us by the probation officer, who brought him because of backwardness in school and moral delinquency. lie was not a court boy, although he had been arrested twice for begging. He resembles the typical weak sinner, who goes around asking for money to bury his sister, avIio has been dead for more than three years. He is quite adept at this particular art, and was able to convince to some little extent the credulous public. He denied that he had stolen anything but pencils, which he often gave away. At one time he ran away from home with a younger brother.’ They both say that they were picking coal on the railroad when a policeman caught them. In order to escape they jumped upon a freight train, which was bound for Wilmington, where they remained from Wednesday until Friday night, and were finally brought home. The boy lias been judged by an expert to belong to the tramp type. He is shiftless, lazy, wandering, uncertain, without any definite purpose in mind. He is neither very good nor very bad.
At school he was constantly in trouble on account of his lack of application and his fondness for pilfering. In one branch only was he interested. He was unusually good in arithmetic. He had so taxed the patience of the teachers that his mother had been advised to place him in a truant school, but as that would detain him for only half a day it was thought advisable to send him to the House of Refuge.
In height he was little above the average boy of his age, rather thin and anaemic. In manner he was apathetic, slow and lazy, with a peculiar air of secretiveness. He seemed to be constantly in search of something, or on the lookout for something. He constantly separated himself from the other boys and strolled about alone, casting sidelong, furtive glances to the right and left. xt the physical examination adenoid symptoms appeared, and he was operated on for the removal of the growth, and sent to the Dental Clinic. Altogether he was one of the most difficult cases entered at the summer school. He presented many contradictory elements. He seemed to be very glad to be in school, and at first liked it very much, though he was inclined to make mischief among the other boys. He was lazy and good natured, without malice and bad temper, yet he would refuse to permit other boys to use tools at the bench if he could help it. In spite of his social qualifications he usually traveled alone. He was an object of suspicion to the other boys, and earned from them the cognomen of “crook.” This probably came from his previous record of pilfering and the fact that he was constantly slipping in and out of different rooms in the gymnasium and other places. He had a sneaky and whiny tone, which indicated a mixture of the sneak thief and beggar. When caught in any of his acts he was immediately repentant and, though ready to promise lasting reform, he soon forgot all about it. He often made voluntary statements that he intended to give up smoking, but never seemed to live up to his own intentions. During the summer it was found that he was suffering from defective eyesight, and his eyes were refracted and glasses fitted. In the class he began with every indication of doing good work, especially if his openly expressed intentions were to be trusted. At times he did very well in his studies, but for the most part his scholastic work was exceedingly unsatisfactory. For a few days after his energetic protestations he did his work fairly well, but needed to be constantly reminded of his high ideals. In his manual work he was slow and careless, but so industrious that he wished to work overtime, and on several occasions asked to be permitted to come back after school and finish his work. In the last week he developed a very indolent air, and it was almost impossible to interest him in any kind of work.
He was not fond of swimming. The shock of the cold water seemed to be too much for him. The same aversion was noticed toward the gymnastic exercises. He was not athletic in any respect and did not take any interest in games. Perhaps this sprang from the same fundamental impulse to separate himself from others. His conduct might be called fair. His truant tendencies exhibited themselves in leaving the class once or twice, but he returned voluntarily each time, repentant and full of promises for the future. After the close of the special school he went to a country camp, where his conduct was reported as very excellent, and where to the amazement of every one who knew him he is said to have become the leader of about forty boys. The latest reports, however, are not so promising. He is again in trouble, and the probable future for the boy will be some corrective institution. M. was a tall, rather gawky boy, who was brought to the special class by his father. The boy had suffered a long time from backwardness in school, where he had made very little progress. At first he had been tried at public school, then for a year in a private school, then returned again to the public school. Though fifteen years old, he was in the fourth grade only, and was not making any progress. His home conditions were good, and everything had been done for his physical condition. His adenoids had been removed some years before, but nothing that had been done seemed to help his mentality. He was distinctly deficient mentally, probably belonging to the class of middle-grade imbeciles. At the physical examination an eye defect was discovered. His eyes were refracted and he was fitted with glasses.
He entered school about one week late. At first he seemed dull and stupid. His general manner was rather impudent. Later these symptoms disappeared, he settled down to work, studied well and made good progress in the lower grade of work to which he was assigned. He conducted himself very well, and was always willing to do anything that was asked of him. Though he was ridiculed by the other boys, he paid little or no attention to them, and performed his tasks with complacency. His special shining mark was in arithmetic. In his class work he made as good progress as the other boys, with the exception of one.
His reactions toward the pool and gymnasium were quite different. It was a long time before he would go swimming at all, but once started he was anxious to try it every day. His co-ordination was very poor, and he never succeeded in either learning to swim or taking his proper part in the class exercises. His report for the whole six weeks was very good, and his teacher was very much encouraged by his progress. The latest report from his home indicates that he was permanently benefited and that he is very anxious to return to a similar class when one is formed. K. was a great, overgrown hobbledehoy, with his twelve years concealed under the physical development of seventeen or eighteen. On April 4, 1910, he was first brought by his mother to the clinic on account of moral delinquency. He had started school when 174 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC.
he was six years old and had been promoted every year. In spite of this excellent work, both the principal and teacher reported that they could not manage him. Home discipline had also failed to work any reform. His mother stated that his greatest trouble was disobedience and lying. He generally lied to protect himself. To his lying he added truancy from school, and to truancy pilfering from his family at different times. He would take pennies, or any small amounts that he found lying about. Once he confessed to taking money from his aunt, but strenuously denied that he had taken a piece of water pipe from the school, which he had been accused of doing. He did admit that he had stuffed it with paper in order to make it overflow. At the time of his examination he was attending a special class.
In the physical examination it was discovered that he had had a running ear since he was six years of age. During his infancy, while he Avas teething, he had spasms, and at eight years of age he was very ill with pneumonia. About the same time his tonsils had been removed and a mastoid operation had been performed. He had had the ordinary diseases of childhood, all of them rather severe cases. He was very slow in walking and in talking, and had always had some trouble with articulation. His heart was overacting, but there were no murmurs. Upon his entrance to the summer class he was the most unpromising creature imaginable. His immense physical development seemed to give him a strange, uncouth and clumsy appearance. He was very tall and knock-kneed. He was ashamed of his great height and was continually embarrassed. He was sullen when crossed, but loved praise. When censured he was always inclined to run home, but never carried his threats into practice. He was quarrelsome and erratic and constantly being offended. By the end of the first week it became apparent that much of his stubbornness was merely pretence and entirely superficial. He was very amenable to praise, and when in a tantrum could be easily controlled by a judicious dose of commendation. At times undoubtedly his fits of temper were due to earache, which never left him. For example, once when he was told to study his geography lesson, he immediately fell into a stubborn spell and said he was going to leave. The teacher replied, “K., is that the way one of my best boys acts when I ask him to do something”, at the same time smiling at him. He immediately smiled, came back to his seat, sat down and studied his lesson in the most decorous manner. Altogether the improvement in his conduct and in his mental work Avas very marked. lie turned out to be one of the most docile and progressive hoys.
In manual work, gymnasium and swimming, his improvement was also very marked. All of his activities, however, were more or less interrupted by his ear trouble, for which he was compelled to attend a clinic three times a week. Since returning home his parents notice a great change, and his teacher reports that he is doing remarkably well at school.
Conclusions based upon the results of this experiment must be made in the light of the object of the experiment and, by reason of its comparatively small scope, they must also be tentative and, to a large degree, merely suggestive. The previous pages show what was accomplished in a general way and give a detailed account of what was done for four boys in particular.
From first to last the individual welfare of the thirteen boys was a constant motive. In pursuance of this object, the physical welfare of each boy was made a matter of the first importance. In the estimation of those who observed the summer experiment, the physical relief alone was one of the largest factors in the improvement made in the conduct and morals of certain boys. If anything like the same percentage of physical defects exists among the 25 per cent of pupils in public-schools retarded two years or more, it would seem that complete and careful diagnosis with appropriate medical or surgical relief is needed as much as modified pedagogical methods.1 ? Intensive forms of intellectual cultivation are as fruitless as farming a desert unless all means are tried first to prepare the soil. The needful preparation may demand a fairly large piece of machinery, i. e. a more extensive organization than any already in existence, or it may require merely a better correlation of the societies already hard at work in separate and sporadic efforts for child-welfare. In the capacity of a correlating agency or clearing house for backward children, the Psychological Clinic has already demonstrated its value, but the special class for troublesome adolescents demonstrated with a new definiteness and fitness, though on a small scale, the absolute need of such an organization centrally related to the public school system in every city large enough to be troubled with mentally or morally backward children.
1For a study of this problem see article, “The Relation of Physical to Mental Defect in School Children,” Walter S. Cornell, M. D., in The Psychological Clinic, Vol. I, No. 8, Jan. 15, 1908, pp. 231-234.
Next after the physical benefits derived from medical and surgical relief came the positive educational contributions in the broad sense of intellectual, moral and physical training. New ideas were imparted, new trends given. In one boy’s case, at least, the effect was a radical change manifested in securing and so far sticking to a regular position. Not the least benefit was the new hope inspired in both boys and parents. All of these effects were definite objects desired and diligently sought for. They concerned the individual primarily and improvements were measured chiefly in terms of personal character which manifested itself in physical tone, better conduct and superior class work.
But another motive, larger in a sense, and primarily social, was an objective of the whole proceeding. It was hoped that a contribution, however small, would be made to the wide-spread improvement in all activities directly or indirectly concerned with the welfare of boys. Of such a magnitude and so radical are the changes that they amount almost to a social revolution of which the boy is the centre. Homes, schools, churches, penal institutions, civil enactments, and therapeutics have all, more or less, felt the quickening influence of information gained by studying the boy from the angle of what is natural and fixed in his nature and by fitting the environment to him and not him to the environment. From the experience of these few weeks, it was hoped that at least a few rays of additional light might be thrown upon this aspect of the “boy problem,” and suggestions might come for the organization of new institutions like the hospital school and parental school, or for the improvement of those already in existence.
The experiment was also pedagogical in that it was an endeavor, not only to teach, but to teach a group and a difficult group. It was an undertaking to demonstrate the possibility of interesting and holding in class a number of scholars who had been eliminated and rejected from the regular institutions of learning. It was an experiment in moral training, not that characters could be made and remade in six short weeks, but that the possibility of remaking character could be demonstrated in those who were, to some extent, accounted waste products of society. Most of them had been diagnosed as incurably backward or incorrigibly bad. In view of these objects it was absolutely necessary to hold the boys. That was to be accomplished at all hazards. The loss of one by permanent truancy or by expulsion would have vitiated the whole project, for almost any pedagogical method can be made successful by eliminating those who will not easily fit into it. The expulsion of all would have meant hopeless failure.
Furthermore, with two such objectives as the improvement of individuals through group teaching and the addition to our stock of knowledge concerning the organization and conduct of welfare agencies and pedagogical institutions, it was necessary to hold the boys in class by ordinary means. The forces brought to bear for the purpose were those of the usual outward influences of home and society. Parents insisted upon their sons’ regular attendance and used their authority to enforce it. Social workers, as has been shown above, contributed their help by persuasion, sympathy and attention to individual boys at home and in school.
Besides these external influences, the attempt was made to create new interests in the mind of each boy. The work and play were to be made sufficiently attractive to win the restless, rebellious adolescents from environments of their own creation with their tendencies for evil to a liking for gymnastics, manual skill, instructive exhibitions of natural history and works of art, and a taste for good literature.
The results obtained brought the following conclusions:? 1. Boys, no matter how unmanageable by agencies already existing, can be interested and held to right activities. Not one boy was expelled from the class or sent home even for a time. Not one became a permanent truant or was compelled to return to school except by his own free will.
2. Adolescents can be interested in regular daily tasks difficult of accomplishment and good in their results. Many a time in the six weeks there was discouragement and almost rebellion on some pupil’s part, but the immediate surety of a change to follow or the strong inducement offered by the many days of games, swimming and visits carried them over the hard places. Soon, habit came in as a stay, and eventually the completion of a task?the making of a basket or a windmill?added the joy of concrete accomplishment.
3. The difficult backward cases need not be given up as hopeless. The most backward boy in the group made the greatest relative progress in class work. There are at least two pre-requi&ites for the successful educational training of these children; the fundamentals of elementary studies must be thoroughly acquired, and the class must be small enough for the teacher to give the slow student much personal attention.
4. Finally, failure of liome, school, probation, and other usual remedial and redemptive agencies to keep a boy in right paths or return him to right conduct, should not brand the boy as incorrigible and amenable to nothing but physical restraint. Confirmed truants will go to the right schools, constant pilferers will restrain their thievishness, idlers will work, liars will tell the truth, if only they can be shown that natural instincts and legitimate desires can be best satisfied by upright moral conduct. That this lesson can be taught to all boys, except those hereditarily degenerate, by means and methods reasonably within the reach of pedagogical and remedial institutions is the tentative conclusion based upon a short experience with a few difficult cases.
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