The Educability Level of Five-Year-Old Children
- Author:
Ide, Ph. D.
University of Pennsylvania. THE BETTER AMERICAN CHILD.
The May number of the Psychological Clinic contains a report of an experiment conducted in a kindergarten for the purpose of discovering the competency of a group of five-year-old children to do first-grade work. That kindergarten was in one of the poorest sections of Philadelphia. The present report is based upon work conducted in two kindergartens in a public school in one of the best residential districts of the city and two others in the best Italian section.
The children in these kindergartens range in age from four years to five years eleven months. With the exception of four or five, none have attended kindergarten before. The five-year-old children who will be five and a half in February will be placed in the first grade at that time. The groups are about equally divided between the four and five-year-olds, but one of the problems which the school is attempting to solve is that of grading the children by ability and forming a pre-first grade group. For this reason all of the children were tested.
The school building is new, and the room in which the children meet is large and sunny. All of the children use the same room, part in the morning and part in the afternoon. The room is attractively furnished with piano, red rug, plenty of tables and chairs, white curtains and the like. There is no dearth of apparatus. The teachers are well trained and co-operative. They are doing excellent work with the children under their care.
With the assistance of Miss Cornelia Mann, senior in the School of Education, and Miss Mary Ambler, social worker in the Psychological Clinic, a psychological examination was given to each child in the kindergarten. The children were brought to a private room, one at a time, by a kindergarten teacher, and there they gave a series of performances calculated to bring out their various abilities as far as was practicable.
The Witmer formboard was chosen as one of the tests for this group of children. It has been shown previously to be a test suitable for children of these years?a test which most of them ought to be able to complete. By its use a very good estimate of the child’s persistency and concentration of attention can be made. It also tests discrimination of form, observation understanding of the test and many other qualities (see Young’s analysis in the Psychological Clinic, Vol. X, p. 149). It gives an opportunity to note suggestions of strain, especially of the eyes, and the general co-ordination of the muscles of the hands and arms. In short it is a test which enables the examiner to make a shrewd estimate of the mental abilities of a child of these years.
The Memory Span test, as elaborated by Humpstone, was used, together with the number of repetitions needed to increase the span by one. This was given as an auditory span for digits. By means of this test associability and reproduction together with range of attention can be secured. Repetitions for the increase of the span by one gives an opportunity for exploration into the possibility of the reproduction of the next highest number of digits. The Healy A formboard was used to secure an idea of the imageability with material considerably above the performance level of most of the children, so that after a five-minute interval during which the method of attack was observed, if the child failed he was shown how to do the test. He was then given two minutes in order to determine whether the image had remained with him. If not he was shown again and a second two-minute interval given. If he succeeded on the first or second trials or both, he was immediately given an opportunity to show that the first result was not the result of chance. Many children did not closely discriminate between the lengths of the two longer blocks of this test, but they were able to demonstrate notwithstanding that they had carried the general image of the completed test in mind.
All of the children were given the straight Terman Revision of the Binet test. Here the purpose was to test the ability to understand and use language and to discover something of the range of information. Owing to the limited time at the disposal of the school and the number of children to be examined, no other tests were used.
In addition to the mental tests, each child was weighed and his height taken. Each five-year-old child was given the opportunity to work six more complex formboards. These included Healy B and the Knox Moron, Imbecile, Diagonal, Diamond Frame and Triangle tests. In a few instances several of the better four-yearolds, that is those which were most advanced both in their mental tests and their kindergarten work, were given some of these formboards to do. The five-year-olds were also taught to write three letters, 0 L and T from dictation. The blackboard was used for this purpose, and the writing was very simple, a circle being drawn for 0, and vertical and horizontal lines used for the other letters, the children being first taught to draw vertical and horizontal lines from dictation. Each child also counted as far as he could and gave replies to number combinations. These were not taught but were taken as a part of the general information. In the case of the letters, the children were asked to make them again twenty-four hours after they had been taught. Their retainability of memory was judged on this basis.
The children were almost all from exceptionally good homes, although they were flat dwellers and had not had much opportunity to play out of doors, they were in excellent physical condition. With the exception of two of the five-year-olds none were below the minimum height for five years, and but two were below in weight. But two were of average five-year height and one average for weight. All the rest of the five-year-olds were above the average of five years in height and weight. Seven were maximum five-year-old in height, and twelve were maximum in wieght. Twelve were maximum in height for six years, and eight for weight. Seven were maximum or average for seven years in height and six for weight, while five were average or more for eight years in height and three for weight. One of these children was maximum weight for twelve years, but he was pathological in that respect.
Of the four-year-olds, three were below the minimum for five years in height and seven for weight There was no table for the physical standards of the four-year-old available, so that comparisons were made in terms of the five-year-old. Five four-yearolds were of average height for five years, and four were average weight for these years, while eight were of maximum height for five years, and five of maximum weight. Four were of maximum height for six years and three for weight. Three reached average height and weight for seven years. There were 67 children in both groups.
It should be noted from the heights and weights given that these children were in excellent condition physically. They came from homes where there is plenty of food of good quality, and where the regimen under which they live gives them excellent opportunity to grow. The figures with which their height and weight records are compared are taken from the measurements of children of all races and conditions, so we may conclude that our group represents those well in the upper half of those measured, and is not repreEDXJCABILITY OF FIVE-YEAR-OLD CHILDREN. 149 sentative of the height and weight of four and five-year-olds in general.
In response to the question, “Who dresses you in the morning?” fifteen five-year-olds responded that they dressed themselves. Thirteen five-year-olds mentioned someone else performing that function. Those who dressed themselves confessed that they were unable to button all of the buttons. Six four-year-olds dressed themselves, as opposed to sixteen who were dressed by others. The fact that there were maids or older children in many of the homes undoubtedly made it more difficult for the small child to acquire the facility to dress himself.
A blank was sent home by the school asking for information concerning the age of walking and talking and the diseases from which the children had suffered. The parents reported 24 cases of measles, 28 cases of whooping cough, 17 cases of chickenpox, 3 cases of mumps, one each of scarlet fever, influenza, diphtheria, stomach trouble and milk poisoning. There were two cases of tonsilectomy and adenoidectomy. No child was found to be deaf. Two children showed a characteristic lack of discrimination which seemed to be due to poor eyesight. There were no epileptics in the group. The average age at which this group of children walked was 14.1 months with a mean variation of 2.5 months. Two children walked at 9 months and two at 24 months. All of the others were grouped closely around the average. The average age for talking was 17.5 months with a variation of 4.6 months. One child was reported as talking at 8 months and rive at 10 months. One talked at 36 months and two at 30 months. With these exceptions the ages grouped closely around the average. It should be noted that walking usually preceded talking. Forty-one children are reported as walking before they began talking. Six are reported as beginning to walk and talk at the same age. No distinction has been made between the reports of the girls and boys, as the group is small and there is little significance in the figures, except in so far as they indicate the normal time for the appearance of these functions. Those which appear late will be considered individually.
THE MENTAL EXAMINATION.
In examination the children were given two trials at the formboard, the second to test learning. Of the five-year-old girls, all succeeded with the formboard, the average time being 70.9 seconds (M. V. 32.5) as opposed to 52.3 seconds average (M. V. 24.7) for the second trial. For the boys, the average time was 67.9 seconds (M. V. 36.3) for the first trial as opposed to 40.8 seconds (M. V. 7.9) for the second trial. The four-year-old girls succeeded with the board in an average of 82.2 seconds (M. V. 35.5), the first trial, and an average of 62.2 seconds (M. V. 15.8) for the second trial, while the boys required an average of 86 seconds to complete the board the first time (M. V. 47.1), and 60.1 (M. V. 21.2) for the second trial. In all cases the average time for the second trial was less than was required for the first trial. The sex differences are not significant, the five-year-old boys doing better than the five-year-old girls and the four-year-old girls doing better than the four-year-old boys. Five girls, three five years old and two four years old failed with the formboard the first trial. Three four-year-old boys failed the first trial, one succeeding the second trial.
The average, median and mode for all four- and five-year-old children of either sex was four with the auditory memory span test for digits. The minimum span for all ages except the five-year-old girls was three. One five-year-old girl had a memory span of two. Six was the highest point reached by all except the four-year-old girls, whose maximum was five.
Each child was tried with a number of digits just higher than his memory span in order to find out how nearly he was ready for the next series. If a child did not succeed with this number of digits after eight trials, no further effort was made. Eight was chosen as the number of trials as the time was limited, and if a child was ready for the next number, he usually was able to get it within five or six trials. Further effort was valueless for the purpose. Of the fouryear-olds, fourteen succeeded within the required number of trials, one only succeeding on six trials, and one on eight; the remainder getting the excess digit by the fifth trial. This was true of the five-year-olds too. Thirteen four-year-olds did not succeed with the higher number of digits. Twenty five-year-olds succeeded in getting the digit next highest, and twenty failed in the required eight trials. Three four-year-old girls out of ten completed the Healy A test under the conditions mentioned above. One failed the second trial, but succeeded the first and third trials and one completed it the second and third trials while failing the first trial. One girl succeeded the second trial, but failed on the first and third. There were four complete failures. Three four-year-old boys out of seventeen completed Healy A in the three trials given. Five succeeded with the second and third trials, while two succeeded the first two trials, and failed on the third. Two succeeded on the third trial alone and one on the first and third trials. Four failed completely.
Of the five-year-old girls, two succeeded the entire three trials, seven succeeded the last two trials, two the first and last trials, and four succeeded the second trial only and one the third trial only, while five failed completely. There were twenty-three girls in the group. Six five-year-old boys out of seventeen succeeded with the test the entire three trials, three the second and third trial, and one the third trial, while two succeeded the first trial only, and four failed the entire three trials.
All of the five-year-old children who were to be five and a half or more in February when the term promotions were made, were tested with the actual material they were expected to use in the first grade, namely?letters. Seven of the girls were tested on their ability to write at dictation a letter, either L, 0 or T which they had been taught to write on the board 24 hours previously. All of these girls succeeded easily with the test, as did six boys. Two girls failed to remember how to make T, but succeeded with the other letters and one girl made T but failed on the other two letters. In each case the girls were able to make the letter after they had been taught a second time. One other girl was never sure of any of the letters when called by names, although she had been able to retain the forms perfectly. Two girls failed entirely to return any of the letters the second day, but they were not included in the group as they had failed the first day. Five boys had trouble with some of the letters. All of them remembered one letter but had lost the names of the other two while still able to give the form of the letter. In order to discover just how much arithmetic children of these years learn for themselves from their kindergarten work and their home environment, all of the children were asked to count as far as they could. All the children were able to count to ten, and most of them went beyond that point. Four were unable to count to twenty. The remainder, with few exceptions, were able to count to twenty-eight and twenty-nine. The exceptions had to be asked to stop, as their ability to count was undeniably proved. Five children did not know any of the combinations even one and one, but most of the others were able to give these and one or two others. A few, one boy and two girls, apparently knew almost all of their combinations, as they did not fail on the samples selected for replies. Two girls were unable to count or to give any combinations. In general the children already knew more number work than many principals require for children completing first grade work. The children of this group who are considered as suitable candidates for first grade work at five and a half years or thereabouts are able to?
1. Replace the blocks in the formboard correctlyfin a*time not exceeding 90 seconds.
2. Give at least four digits on an auditory presentation of the memory span.
3. Show enough imageability to replace five blocks of such a test as Healy A after having been shown not more than once. 4. Respond correctly to directions involving three operations. 5. Understand and use language freely enough as a medium of communication to make it possible to use it as a key to new information, that is, to respond to the Binet-Simon test at an age level not lower than the chronological age.
6. Learn the forms at least of three letters and retain them 24 hours for reproduction.
This group of children are able to count before entering first grade. This is not a necessary requirement before the child enters the grade, but it is necessary that he be able to learn to count in a very short time after he begins his work. The learning of three letters and the reproduction of them after some time has elapsed, either by name or phonetically, indicate the possession of the necessary abilities for the acquirement of reading.
Two of the five-year-old girls are not yet ready for the first grade. They are feeble-minded children of low grade, utterly unable to follow the work of the others, even of the youngest children in the kindergarten, and are quite overwhelmed by their position in the five-year group. Neither of them has good retainability. They have narrow memory spans. They cannot be taught one letter so that they can reproduce it at command. Their imageability is poor, and their understanding of their work inadequate. In short, they are completely unable to do the work of the first grade, and should be excluded therefrom because of their incompetency.
REPORTS OF SOME TOPICAL CASES.
Peace is five years eleven months old. She walked at 18 months and talked at two years. Her height is average for six years, but her weight reaches the eight-year level owing to excess fat. She has some glandular dystrophy. She is reported by her mother to have had diphtheria. She did the formboard in 110 seconds the first trial, making three errors. Her second trial was correct in 135 seconds, but she had constantly to be urged to get her to work at all. She was not able to do Healy A, and she failed likewise with all the puzzles which the other five-year children were doing. She could not imitate other children with these puzzles, and was not able to learn to do the simplest even after she had been shown five consecutive times. Her auditory memory span was three, and she was not able to get four on eight repetitions. By the Binet scale her mental age was just three years, and her intelligence quotient was 50. She could not be taught to write three letters or one letter, and she does not count or add numbers. In competition with her companions Peace has no chance. Her persistency is low, and her fatigability point is soon reached. She is feeble-minded, of a rather low level, and it will be some years yet before she will be able to start in with her reading work. At present she belongs in a special class or school for children of her type.
Betty is five years four months old. She is minimum in height and weight for a child of six years. She walked and talked at 18 and 24 months respectively. She has had whooping cough and chickenpox, but no other diseases, and while she looks rather frail, she is apparently strong enough to do her school work. She did the formboard in 126 seconds. She confused the triangles and the star and the cross and pushed hard to place blocks in spaces not intended for them, but she finally succeeded with the test. Her second trial was quicker, 108 seconds. She made the same mistakes as she did the first time, but did not linger so long on them. She failed completely with Healy A, and even after teaching was not able to do it. Owing to bad weather, she missed school the days the other children played with the rest of the puzzles, so did not get a chance to try them. Her memory span was two, and it was impossible to raise this to three in eight trials. Her mental age on the Binet scale was three years two months, and her I. Q. was 59. She knew no combinations and could not count. The rate of energy discharge of this girl was very slow and this, combined with a narrow memory span and almost no trainability, excludes her from the class which will be doing first grade in the middle of the year. Both of these children have poor use of language, a further handicap in the first grade. Children who Failed on the Formboard the First Trial.
(See case of Peace.) Sarah is five and a half years old. In height and weight she is average for her years. With the exception of measles and chickenpox, she has not been ill. She walked and talked at 16 months. The first trial of the formboard was completed in 175 seconds with three errors. She did it correctly in 78 seconds the second time. Her movements are slow, her attention easily distracted and poorly distributed. She succeeded with Healy A in 3 minutes 50 seconds, but failed to complete it either the second or third trials under the conditions named. This failure was partially due to her slow reaction. Her memory span was four digits, with five on tw0 repetitions. In language she was good enough for her years. Her age on the Binet scale was six years, her I. Q. 109. She was taught three letters so that she retained them 24 hours, putting them on the board as dictated. She counts to 28 but knows none of the combinations. She was able to complete the six puzzles given the five-year olds but always by the trial and error method. Sarah lacks intellect. Except for slowness of response, Sarah is able to do what the other children do, but her method is poor. She never seems really to understand what she is about. While she is prepared to do first-grade work, her rate of speed is too slow to make her an easy child to teach in a regular class. Her language ability is better than is her performance ability.
Jessie is five years seven months old. She walked at 13 months, but did not talk until she was three years old. No reason is given for this, as the mother reports that she has had no diseases of any kind and has always been well. In height and weight she is average for seven years. The first trial of the formboard was a failure, the isosceles triangle not being placed. The second trial was successful in 37 seconds. The first trial of Healy A was failure, but she completed the second and third trials each in 18 seconds. Her memory span is four. Her age on the Binet scale is six years with an I. Q. of 107. Jessie talked late and shows a poor understanding of new problems. Her good imageability and associability compensate for this so that while she does not easily work out a new problem she is able to do it after she has seen it done once. She will probably be able to do first grade work through imitation even if she is not able to solve her problems for herself.
Daisy is four years eight months old. She walked and talked at one year. Her height and weight are minimum for five years. She failed on the first trial of the formboard because of hyper-excitability. She completed it the second trial in 55 seconds, giving a good performance for her years. She did not cry, but she trembled so much that she was not able to hold the blocks in her hands. After some time spent in getting acquainted with her, she returned a memory span of four. Her mental age on the Binet scale was five years eight months with an I. Q. of 121. There is no history to account for the excitablity. Daisy is so extreme in this respect that she will require the best of physical cafe to keep her fit for school work. At present she is frail but does not seem ill. There is no reason to suspect that she is not otherwise fitted to do work suitable for her years.
Helen is four years eleven months old. She walked at 16 months and talked at 24 months. She has had no diseases of any kind and is of height and weight for the average five-year-old. She made eight errors the first trial of the formboard which she completed in 80 seconds. She did not understand what she was trying to do. She succeeded the second time in 107 seconds giving an accurate performance although one that showed a low energy output. She solved Healy A in 90, 52 and 31 seconds respectively. Her memory span is four digits, with five on five repetitions. Her Binet score was five years six months. I. Q. 111. Her performance after the first trial of the formboard was very good, except for her slowness in response.
Virgil is four years five months old. He walked at 14 months and talked at 16 months. His height and weight are less than minimum for five years. In the first trial of the formboard he failed to place one block correctly, and although he was shown how this one should be placed, he failed the second trial. He had constantly to be urged and encouraged to get him to work at all. His retainability was very low. On Healy A he succeeded the first trial in 55 seconds, but failed the two succeeding trials, the success apparently being due to chance. His memory span was three digits, with four digits on three repetitions. His age on the Binet scale was four years four months, the I. Q. 98. This boy has a poor memory. His memory span is narrow, and he does not retain images well. He has good ability in language, but even that is below the level reached by most of the members of the class. Virgil should be carefully watched and trained in order that he may be ready for the first grade when the time comes.
James is four years eleven months old. He walked at 14 months and talked at 12 months, and his height and weight are average for five years. He made two errors on the first trial of the formboard which was complete in 67 seconds. The second trial was completed in 67 seconds, with the same two errors. He failed on all three trials of Healy A. His discrimination of form is below the level required of his years. His memory span is five with four repetitions required for six. His mental age on the Binet scale is six years, with an I. Q. of 122. His language ability is very good. The lack of ability to discriminate form suggests the possibility of inadequate vision, and a visit to an oculist was suggested. The only disease James has had is whooping cough.
Edward is four years seven months old. He is nearly average height and weight for five years. He walked and talked at 11 and 24 months respectively. Edward placed but two blocks correctly the first trial of the formboard. After being taught with the rest of the blocks, he was given a second trial, but only two blocks were placed this time. After teaching again he made five errors the third trial, but succeeded after teaching on the fourth trial. His memory span was three digits, with four on eight repetitions. On the Binet scale, his mental age is four years four months, with an I. Q. of 94. This boy has some ability in language, but he shows a narrowed memory span and very poor distribution and understanding of performance tests. His co-ordination is yery good. Edward needs careful teaching to bring him to a satisfactory level before he enters the first grade.
Children Who are Already Problems in School.
Billy is four years three months old. In height and weight is about the minimum for five-year-old children. He walked at 14 months, and talked at 18 months. His mouth is malformed from adenoids, his teeth are badly decayed, his eyesight is poor, and he has an infantile stammer. He is frequently angry, and in fits of temper he removes his clothing He succeeded with the formboard in 115 seconds. His method was partly trial and error, and his energy discharge was low. The second trial he succeeded in 70 seconds. He did Healy A in 150, 15 and 60 seconds respectively. The third trial was longer because he did not retain the image of the completed test and had to work it out again as he had done in the first trial, using the same method. His memory span was four, with four repetitions required for five digits. He does not dress himself. His mental age according to the Binet test is four years ten months, the I. Q. 113. This boy really has a brilliant mind, if his ability to solve problems he has never seen before and which are considerably above his mental level is evidence. His violent temper, slow energy output and obstinacy are not being wisely cared for at home, and the sensory defects and irritations serve to increase the difficulty. The parents are Scotch, and they do not seem to understand their somewhat erratic son. Herman is five years three months old. He is minimum for five years in height and weight. He has never been ill, but appears small and frail. He walked at 13 months and talked at 18 months. He succeeded with the formboard in six minutes three seconds, but with the poorest attention, requiring constant urging and encouragement or he would never have completed the test at all. The second trial was successful in 65 seconds. He failed the first two trials of Healy A, but succeeded the third trial in 35 seconds. His memory span is four with five on eight repetitions. His mental age on the Binet scale is four years two months and his I. Q. 79. His attendance at school is irregular so that he missed the teaching work that was given. His school report is not satisfactory. He is not better than is the youngest of the four-year-olds. His attention is poor and his language development not that of the children with whom he will have to compete in the first grade. It is not likely that he will do well in that grade.
Herman’s sister Bessie is four years one month old. She is small for her age, much below par physically. She walked at 14 months, and talked at 18 months. She required three minutes for the formboard the first time, crying all the time she was working at it. The second trial was successful in seven seconds. She refused to try to do Healy A, sobbing as hard as she could. Her teacher reports this a daily performance in the kindergarten. She is therefore rarely able to take part in the games and plays of the other children. Her memory span is four. She could not get five on eight repetitions. Her mental age on the Binet scale is four years with an I. Q. 99. Because of her emotional reactions, Bessie has not yet really done any work in the kindergarten. It is probable that there is some real physical condition which is the cause of the condition. These children come from a different home environment than do the others. Their father is dead and their mother works out by the day. While clean and well-dressed, they do not show the care which the other children do. In another environment they would not be markedly different from the others.
Mary, five years seven months old, is another one of the problems of the school. She is a brilliant child. She did the formboard in 57 and 28 seconds respectively, and Healy A in 28, 33 and 8 seconds for the three performances using both hands for her manipulations and showing complete understanding of the problems involved. Her memory span is five digits, and her mental age on the Binet scale is seven years ten months, with an I. Q. of 136. She is easily able to learn her letters and in five minutes was taught three words which she retained several days. She counts and knows some of her number combinations. But there is already some trouble with Mary about stealing. She takes things both at home and at school. She takes things she cannot want. For instance, she took a child’s sweater, although she owned a better one. She excused herself to her mother on the ground that she did not bring the sweater home? she had hidden it in the schoolroom. Punishments of various kinds have failed so far to control the tendency. Mary has had no diseases of any kind She is a tall, handsome child of maximum height and weight for six years She walked at 14 months and talked at 12 months Mary will do well in the first grade, but her social non-conformity is already beginning to be a problem in the school.
Reports of Other Members of this Group
Anna is one month past four years old. She walked and talked at 14 months. She has had no diseases of any sort Her height and weight are minimum for five years. She does not yet dress herself. She did the formboard the first trial in 45 seconds, the second trial in 37 seconds. She did not succeed with Healy A in three trials, not because of poor imagery, but because she did not understand what was wanted with the test. Her memory span is four digits, with four repetitions necessary to secure five. On the Binet scale she reaches a mental age of five years ten months, with an I. Q. of 143. She has an excellent memory for words. Her level for performance tests is better than that of many children, for her co-ordination and concentration of attention are very good for her age. She ought to make a good first-grade pupil when she is five and a half. Marjorie is four years ten months old. She is of maximum height and weight for five years. She walked at 17 months. Her mother reports that she has had measles and whooping cough. She did the formboard in 85 seconds the first trial and 48 seconds the second trial. Her co-ordination was so good that she placed the blocks in the spaces without letting them touch the sides of the space. She did Healy A the first trial in four minutes, but required but nine and six seconds respectively for the second and third trials. Her memory span was five and six on six repetitions. Her mental age on the Binet scale was six years ten months, the I. Q. 152. She was able to do all of the additional puzzle tests given to the five-yearold children, and to write three letters on the blackboard at command, but her co-ordination was not good enough to handle chalk well, the lines she drew being very wavy in appearance. In the solution o: original problems involving processes with which she was not familiar this child acquitted herself brilliantly. Winstone passed his fourth birthday seven months ago. He walked and talked at 16 and 15 months respectively. His height and weight are average for five years. He has had whooping cough, chickenpox and mumps. He did the formboard in 47 and 45 seconds respectively. He failed the first time with Healy A, but completed it the second trial in two minutes, and the third trial in 18 seconds. His memory span is five, four repetitions being required for six. His mental age is five years eight months and his I. Q. is 123. In both performance tests and in language there is no question of this boy’s ability.
John is as large as many six-year-olds. He is nearly their average in height and weight. He walked at 12 months and talked at 10 months. He has had no diseases, and has had no illnesses except milk poisoning, but he is not strong and suffers with colds. He required 60 and ?0 seconds respectively to do the formboard, which he did very deliberately. He refused to stick to the problem of Healy A. His method of refusal is to sit back comfortably and do nothing. His memory span is six digits, with but two repetitions necessary for seven. His mental age on the Binet scale is seven years, the I. Q. 142. This boy has real ability but it is considerably obscured by poor persistency of attention, due to the fact that he is being reared on Nature’s plan, which means that he does not have to do a single thing that he does not want to do. On this account it is difficult to get him to work.
Rose is five years five months old. She walked at 13 months, and talked at 12 months. She had not been ill nor has she suffered from infectious diseases. Her height and weight are those of a seven-j’ear-old child. She does the formboard in 43 and 36 seconds for the two trials, and although she fails with Healy A the first trial, she succeeded with the second in eight seconds, and the third in seven seconds. On the Binet scale she is five years eight months old with an I. Q. of 104. Her language ability is just about what may be expected of a child of her years. She counts to 28 correctly and knows three of her beginning combinations. She doe? all the puzzles easily, and retains the three letters which she had been taught. She ought to do well in first grade.
Frank is five years eleven months old. He walked at 13 months and talked at 20 months. Except for some stomach trouble he has never been ill. In height and weight he is average for six years. He did the formboard in 27 and 22 seconds respectively for the two trials. He gave an excellent performance with Healy A in 35, 17 and 19 seconds for the three trials. His memory span was four. He was unable to learn five on eight repetitions. His mental age on the Binet scale was six years with an I. Q. of 101. He easily completed six puzzles in a half hour period and learned and retained for 24 hours three letters. He counts to eleven correctly but so far has learned none of the combinations. He is a good subject for the first grade.
James is five years seven months old. He walked at 18 months and talked at 24 months. Except for measles and whooping cough he has never been ill. His height and weight are average for six years. He completed the formboard in 40 seconds the first trial and 35 seconds the second trial, making some attempt to hasten. He did Healy A in 35, G2 and 25 seconds for the three trials. His memory span was six. He did not reach seven on eight repetitions. His Binet test gave him a mental age of seven years ten months, with an I. Q. of 140. He learned three letters easily and retained them 24 hours. He counted indefinitely, at least to 100 and probably farther. He knew all of his addition combinations, and most of those for subtraction, missing only such difficult ones as seven from sixteen. This boy is certainly ready to do first-grade work.
CITIZENS IN THE MAKING.
There were sixty of these tiny Italian boys and girls?each one with large soulful eyes shaded by long lashes, each one with black “bobbed” hair and each one short and stubby. They occupied a basement room in one of our most modern public schools, a room just off the engine room and one door away from the manual training room. Their windows were high above the level of the floor giving a passing view of a world made up of individuals having neither heads nor feet. The room had a piano in it, a desk and some decorations made by the children themselves. There were also the customary tiny red chairs and long tables. Along one side of the room the children laid their lunches on a table, lunches wrapped in bits of newspapers and consisting mainly of two slices of dry bread. The teachers supplemented this mid-morning and midafternoon lunch by tiny cakes. None of the children were clean. The odor in the room when the children had come in on a wet morning was indescribable. Their clothing was whole but never quite clean, their faces and hands never wholly soiled, but never delightfully soaped and scrubbed. Under the eyes of the children there was a slight bluish coloring, and the faces bore that slight hollowing of cheek and temple associated with the under-nourished.
It was impossible to judge the age of the children from the teacher’s roll book which showed them ranging from six to eight years of age. Since these ages, in some cases at least, were unquestionably incorrect, a social worker visited the homes of the children and attempted to secure their correct ages. While there she learned something of the home conditions of the children as well. She reports that it is customary for the Italians to call their children two years old when the American mother would say one year. One mother said that Tony “has finish one year, make two years.” With the obvious advantages to the parent of getting the children out of school early, the system of adding another year or two for good measure has grown up, so that it is no wonder that the kindergarten babies are reported much over age. Besides when there are two or three “kiddies” below Tony, anyone can see that it is an advantage to get rid of Tony for half a day at least, so that sometimes Tony’s age is added up with Amerigo’s, and he makes school when he would not otherwise.
The district in which these children live is the better part of “Little Italy.” A majority of the homes were typical four- and fiveroomed houses facing on a narrow side street. Each house boasted its quota of low marble steps, much patched doors and old-fashioned shutters nailed fast. The inside of the houses was surprisingly clean and orderly. They featured draperies with gay flower and butterfly borders wherever it was possible for a drapery to be. Even in the poorest home where there were not enough chairs for all of the family to sit at one time, the mantle of the furnitureless parlor sported a heavy bit of drapery of vivid hue. The dining-room-kitchen usually served as reception room. Here there was always a flickering gas jet to furnish light, as the closed shutters in the front and the rear of the neighboring house effectually shut out all daylight. In this room there was always a large stove with a good coal fire, for all Italians like to be warm.
Some of the houses were the three-storied brick houses which used to belong to the better class of people in Philadelphia in the early days. These are now divided into two- and three-room apartments, crowded to the doors with different families and their roomers. Some of the homes were above the business places of the men and indicated considerable financial prosperity.
The Italian mother proved to be most hospitable and cordial. The families were large and the general home atmosphere a happy and contented one. Very few of the mothers talked English at all, and those who attempted it possessed very limited vocabularies. They were always glad, however, to secure some child in the neighborhood as an interpreter. While the homes were always clean and pleasant, the children who were around the house were always dirty and disheveled. There was never any sign of food, and the report of the teachers indicated that it was not the most important part of the people’s living problem. Coffee (boiled for hours) and the ever present spaghetti were the principal articles of diet, while lunch consisted mainly of bread and coffee.
All the children in the group were reported to be at least five years old. The mother of one girl reported her seven years of age, and eight reported their girls past six. Since the children were not baptized, it was impossible to determine whether these ages were correct or not. One boy was reported seven years old, and six as six years old. It is very probable that the children are in many cases given ages one year in advance of what an American child would be called, but it was impossible to discover whether or not this was so.
Since the children appeared small for their ages, the height and weight and head girth of most of the children were taken. The scales were located at another school a block away and the interference of a blizzard prevented the weighing of many of the group. So far as could be discovered the children, both boys and girls, were of average or minimum weight for five years. Two boys were minimum for six years. The group of children looked very much alike and the weights given were about representative of the group. In height the same ranges are evident with the exception of one or two. The heights for both boys and girls fall close to the minimum or the average for five years Because the children’s heads looked large the head girths were takgn. With the exception of one they were either average or slightly larger than average for the girls. Five boys had a head girth slightly less than the average, and six boys were from two to three centimeters greater than the average. Physically the children were in very good shape. Their teeth were good and there were only a few cases of enlarged tonsils. The throat conditions were much better than might have been expected. None of the children had colds although the examinations took place during January, and American children living under very much better conditions all had very bad colds. They did not smile and while ready to fight at the drop of a hat were never able to play. This was reported a common condition with the children of this nationality all through school.
All the children were tried individually with the Witmer formboard. The average time for all girls was 72.6 seconds with deviation of 24.9 seconds on the first trial. On the second trial the average was 52.9 seconds, a drop of 20 seconds after one attempt at solution and the average deviation of this trial was 18.3 seconds, a lowering of 6 seconds over that of the first trial. For the boys the average was 92.8 seconds on the first trial with an average deviation of 45.9 seconds and on the second trial the average was 58.6 seconds with a deviation of 17.8 seconds, The same decrease on the second trial was noted of the boys as of the girls. The boys required more time for the solution of the problem than did the girls in each of the two trials, but in this particular class the boys were noted as being less aggressive than the girls. Four boys and four girls failed to solve the problem in two trials.
To test the imageability of these children the Healy A test was introduced. Twenty-one per cent of all the girls succeeded on all three trials. Twenty-five per cent succeeded on the second and third trials. Four per cent succeeded on the first and third trials and 14 per cent succeeded on the third trial only after two attempts to teach. Thirty-seven per cent failed on the last trial. Of the boys 90 per cent succeeded on all three trials: 46 per cent on the second and third trials and 9 per cent on the first and third trials, while 5 per cent succeeded on the third trial only, and 32 per cent failed on the third trial. Two-thirds of these children were thus able to retain images well enough so that on or before the third trial they were able to place the blocks of this test correctly. One-third of both boys and girls were not able to do this.
The average auditory digit memory span for girls was 3.7 digits with a median and mode of 4 digits. The average memory span for the boys was 3.6 digits with a median and mode of 4. Nine of the girls returned a memory span of three, while six of the boys had a memory span of three and two had a memory span of two. Each child was given an opportunity to determine how many repetitions were required for him to return the next highest number of digits. About one-half of the girls succeeded in giving the next highest number within the eight trials. Sixteen failed to do this. Fourfifths of the boys were able to return the next highest number within eight trials. Five boys failed. Only one girl and one boy were able to return 5 digits as a span.
Each of these children was given an opportunity to demonstrate what they could do with the Terman Revision of the Binet-Simon test. The aim was to see what was the ability of the children in the matter of language. Most of these children spoke no language but Italian when they came to school. In some cases the parents were native-born but did not speak English, and the children?the second generation?came to school with no English vocabulary. Their efforts with Binet tests were in many cases ridiculous. They did not know what they were asked nor what they were expected to do, but the children with good initiative made a guess and went ahead. Most of the children, however, sat quietly with blank expressions and attempted nothing. Because the ages of these children were more or less doubtful the intelligence quotient was not reckoned. The average mental age for the group however, shows one year of retardation. This is not a good index, for some children were unable to do anything with the tests and others did fairly well. Three girls returned a mental age in excess of their chronological age, but one boy was able to do so. Most of the difficulty lay in the field of comprehension. The children could not understand what was wanted of them. In order that they might get as much as possible the examiner turned each question not correctly answered at first, into some other form, oftentimes into the language of the street. Many children therefore received a higher mental age than would have been possible had they been marked strictly according to the Binet standard. The changes made and the complete results of the work done with the Binet test will be published under a separate heading. In general the language ability of these children is much below that required of children entering the first grade. In fact in some cases the only language which the child possesses is that of his teacher, i. e., he is able to interpret her nods, smiles and gestures, and to do pretty much what she wishes him to do while yet utterly unable to understand a single word she says. Some children do not know more than a few sentences of English and are not ready to do adequate work in the first grade. Because the ages reported by the parents are so doubtful the teachers have had considerable difficulty in making promotions from the kindergarten to the first grade. Theoretically each child when he is five and one-half years old automatically becomes a member of the first grade. When ages are reported as the teachers receive them in the schools they are poor indices, so the teachers try to promote the children who seem to have the best ability.
P? A group of children to be promoted the second term were taught the letters t, I and o by the examiner. As a number of children not included in this group had done very well with the mental tests, and as some children not included in either group seemed bright and alert the selection for teaching purposes included all three groups. Because of the language difficulty the letters were taught by imitation, that is, the letter was written on the board and the children required to copy it, at the same time the name being given. Each child was kept at his task until he was able to reproduce at command and by name each of the three letters. The children were taught in groups of two and the time required varied for each group. It did not exceed ten minutes as maximum. The minimum was about three minutes. Twenty-four hours later the children were asked to reproduce the letters under the same conditions. Two girls and two boys succeeded in so reproducing the letters. Five boys and five girls were unable to reproduce the letters at command, but were able to produce the forms indicating that part of the images had remained, although the names had not been retained. The remainEDUCABILITY OF FIVE-YEAR-OLD CHILDREN. 165 ing children in the kindergarten were not tried because there was no possibility of their being placed in first grade until fall. The children were asked to count as far as they could. No child counted more than ten and most of them were not able to count at all in English. No instruction, however, had been given in the kindergarten in work of this sort. None of the children knew any of their combinations, but they did know the different coins? penny, nickel, dime and quarter. This is probably due to the fact that many of the children do not eat at home at all and others are there only for the last meal of the day. They were used to having money in their pockets to spend for candy, pretzels, pickles or biscuits.
It was not possible to discover what diseases this group of children had had, nor how old they were when they walked and talked. While the parents were co-operative the barrier of language was so great as to make it impossible for a social worker to secure the information desired. The results of the examination showed that:
Children of five years may be expected to pass the formboard;
(2) That the imageability of five-year-old Italian children is good enough so that two-thirds of the number can be expected to pass Healy A at least on the third trial; (3) That the memory span of five-year-old children is 4 digits, and (4) That the Binet test taken as a test of intelligence is not satisfactory for children whose language attainments are so restricted as was this group of five-year-old Italian children, but as an index of language acquirement it shows the inability of the children who speak a foreign language to cope with the requirements which are demanded of a child entering our public schools at six years.
REPORTS OF SOME TOPICAL CASES.
John is five and one-half years old. He did the formboard in 58 seconds the first time he tried it and the second time in 35 seconds. He failed the first time on Healy A, but completed it in eleven and eight seconds on the second and third trials respectively. His memory span was four digits with three repetitions required for five. His mental age was but three months less than his chronological age. He was one of the few children in the school who spoke English. In height, weight and head girth he was average for five years.
John comes from a superior home. There are many luxuries to be found in the parlor and dining room. The father is an electrician, and both he and the mother are ambitious for the children. John is the oldest of three. His father proudly announced that John was to come to the University for a professional education if he proved good enough to profit by such preparation. John was one of the very few who were able to profit by instruction in letters. He had no difficulty in remembering three letters for twenty-four hours and was proudly eager to display his knowledge even before he was asked. This was unusual among the group that was as inert as this one. There is no question about John being able to do first grade work. Of course he has had the advantage of English in the home as both father and mother use it entirely.
Alice has a little sister three years old and a brother of eighteen months. They live in two rooms, one of which is the bedroom for the family and the other a general .living room and kitchen. The rooms are very clean and the mother a young woman who shows considerable desire to give her family the best that is possible. Alice will be six in July. Until she went to school a short time ago she had learned no English at all. Now she is able to pass the fouryear-old Binet test which places her eighteen months retarded on that scale. Her memory span is three with eight repetitions required to produce four. The formboard required 70 seconds for her to complete the first time and 83 seconds the second time. This showed very little learning ability. In the Healy A test Alice failed the first trial but succeeded the second trial in fifty-five seconds and the third trial in eight seconds. She did very well in this test. Alice is of average height, weight and head girth for five }rears. She is to be admitted into the first grade the second term although she is unable to understand anything that is said to her. Alice was not able to learn three letters and retain them by name for twenty-four hours, although she did retain the forms. She is not a very bright child, and with a handicap of language she is certainly not a very good product for the first grade.
Betty’s father is a prosperous-looking real estate man. Both his place of business and his home show evidence of care. The father and mother dress well and they are both very proud of their fiveyear-old daughter who was shown by the intelligence tests given at the school to be a bright little girl. She is one of the heaviest of the children, although she is no taller than the rest of the children? about average for five years in height. She is in the upper quartile of the five-year group in the matter of weight. Betty completed the formboard the first trial in 85 seconds and the second trial in 31 seconds. While her time was slow on the first trial, she succeeded in doing it faster than any other child had done it on the second trial. On the Healy A she failed the first trial but succeeded in 48 seconds the second trial and 11 seconds the third trial. Her memory span was four digits and when tried with three letters she succeeded the second time in giving a correct return. Betty was not selected by her kindergarten teacher as a possible candidate for the first grade, because she lacked the maturity indicated by some of the other children. She ought, however, to do better work in the first grade than most of the other children in the school. Betty’s parents speak English in the home, and her language ability is indicated by a mental age of six years and two months on the Binet scale.
Agnes was adorned with a purple gown and a wide smile. She was the boss of the whole group of kindergarten children, maintaining her position by right of fist when her flow of words was not sufficient to proclaim her superiority. Her flashing brown eyes took in every situation at a glance, and her commands were issued before even the teacher was aware of the difficulty. She had a good vocabulary of “swear words” and she used them frequently and on any sort of occasion. Her language was that of the street and her hands were uplifted in frequent gestures as she supplemented her lack of vocabulary with that of finger and arm. It was said that she rarely went home, as she was not expected to appear oftener than the cat or dog, who also formed a part of the household. Six other children were also a part of the home although rarely there. They all went barefooted, even in the snow, and on one occasion Agnes and the dog shared the pleasures of a raw potato together. Home was devoid of even the simplest of furniture and there was no effort made to establish any sort of reasonable living conditions. Agnes is five years seven months old, the language she knows might be called English but might more properly be called something else. Although Agnes is alert and apparently bright she does not do as well in tests as one might expect. Her movements are quick, as is noted by the formboard which she completed in 42 and 37 seconds respectively. Agnes required 299 seconds for the first trial of Healy A, 44 seconds for the second trial and 65 seconds for the third trial. Her memory span is three digits and she did not get four on eight repetitions. She was one year and two months retarded in mental age on the Binet scale, for although she talked readily enough in ordinary street slang she was not able to understand the directions given her by the examiner. Agnes retained the letters which were taught her for twenty-four hours, but she could not reproduce them at command. She remembered the forms well enough but the names were beyond her. Agnes is more interested in the executive end of the kindergarten than she is in learning the work. She is aggressive and willing and has considerable ability in the use of her hands, but it is not likely that she will be very successful in first-grade work, because school is likely to prove somewhat of a bore to her. She is to try first grade this spring, and although hindered by none too great a supply of language she has better chances than some of the better-reared children to make good there.
Terry is expected to enter the first grade the second term. His mother still speaks Italian at home, and although Terry is very willing to try he is not able to do very much in the way of speaking English. Terry’s home is a very bleak, barely furnished room. There are two small children hanging on to the mother’s skirts and one other child passed on this winter. Terry’s parents are hard up, so Terry has not had as much food or as many clothes as are really needed by a boy seven and a half years old. In height and weight Terry is in the upper half of the five-year group. He is thin and his face is pale with blue lines under the eyes. He is willing to sit, and unless he is told to do so never attempts to start anything new. On the formboard Terry succeeded in 35 seconds the first trial and 30 seconds the second trial. He led in point of time for this test. He failed the first time on Healy A but succeeded the next two trials in 10 seconds and 8 seconds respectively. He was retarded a year and a half on the Binet scale because of the language deficiency as well as for limited memory span of three digits which was the most he could return. He failed to remember the letters for twenty-four hours although he remembered the forms correctly. Terry is so much older than the other children in the kindergarten that his work appears unusually good until it is considered that he has two years to their advantage in age. He is to be placed in the first grade this year where he will probably do as well as most of the children who enter the school.
Clarence did the formboard in 63 seconds the first trial and 52 seconds the second trial. He is five years seven months old and as yet has never spoken while he has been in kindergarten. He is a good boy who never gives any trouble either at home or at school. His mother, who is able to speak English well, says that Italian is spoken at home because of an aged grandmother in the house, and that Clarence is able to speak Italian a little and to understand it fairly well. The home is large, comfortable and well furnished, and the condition of the children shows that they have better food than many of the others in the kindergarten. Clarence is the eldest of two boys. His face is wizened and old, with a pasty-looking complexion. The cheek bones are high and the eyes prominent. Clarence’s body looks fat, but his legs and arms are thin and his abdomen protrubent. His height and weight are average for five years. He is a cretinoid type, considerably below the social requirements of a boy of his age. His energy output is very low. He did the Healy A test in 127 seconds the first trial, failed the second trial and succeeded in 80 seconds the third trial. His memory span was three, with seven repetitions required for four digits. His mental age on the Binet scale is four years two months. Many of his replies to questions in this test were correct but given in Italian. Inasmuch as it was desired to find out whether the child had any language at all, since he did not speak in school, these replies were credited. Clarence is not likely to do well in the first grade. While he is not more retarded mentally than many of this group, according to tests given him, he is much more retarded socially, as he is not able to respond at all to the advances of the other children.
Sarah is a Syrian, and as such is entitled to smile now and then. Her father and mother sell linens to the rich people around the resorts and at home. Sarah has learned to take good care of herself and her tiny sister while mother is away from home. The home is just two rooms, but it is bright and cheery with an over-amount of furniture, and as a chef d’oeuvre a “singing machine” to which Sarah can dance and sing to her heart’s content. Her father and mother sigh and smile as they report the tyranny of the small lady who demanded this machine and refused to be satisfied with anything else. Sarah failed the first time with the formboard, but succeeded on a second trial in 41 seconds. After this experience, she failed on Healy A, but solved it on the second trial in 50 seconds and the third trial in 101 seconds Her memory span is four She succeeded with the Binet scale at five years, and she is but three months older than that. Sarah’s trouble is not likely to be with her school work. She is able to learn letters and to retain their forms, and she can count change without difficulty. Sarah will steal though. She picks up things at the kindergarten and also from the stores around about, although she is never without money, as the linen business is very good now. Sarah is likely to be some trouble to her parents in the future as they have no control of her now, and this habit is one that is sure to get her into trouble if something is not done to control it. Amerigo is almost seven. He is the only child in the kindergarten who has lost his front teeth. He did the formboard in 66 seconds and 51 seconds respectively and Healy A in 112 seconds, 48 seconds and 19 seconds respectively. His memory span is four digits with two repetitions required to give five. He scored five years eight months on the Binet scale and he is six years nine months old. He still does almost nothing with kindergarten work. He did not remember either name or form of three letters, and he does not count at all. His work with performance tests is not better than that of children two years younger than himself. His teacher has not considered placing him in the first grade, and from the sort of work he does, it is not likely he would be a desirable candidate for promotion. Amerigo is no larger than is his brother who is in the same class with him and who is five years old. He does not seem to be doing well in growth although he is somewhat taller than some members of the class, falling in the group of the upper quartile of five-year-olds. He is thin and there is a worried expression on his face. He will enter first grade at least two years retarded for age, with poor prospect of doing successful work there.
Lester will be six in two more months, but he failed to do the formboard and he failed with Healy A. His memory span was three digits with six repetitions required for four. He was rated three years and four months on the Binet scale. He could not learn three letters the first day so that he could write them at command, and was utterly unable to remember even the forms. He was average in height, weight and head girth for five years. He has made almost no progress in learning English, but then English is not spoken in the home. He is not ready to do first-grade work, nor will he be for some time. He is not to be placed in the first grade this present year anyway. There are five other boys who are very much like Lester in mental ability and home surroundings. None of them are yet ready for first grade.
COMPARISON OF KINDERGARTEN CHILDREN IN TWO DIFFERENT SCHOOLS IN PHILADELPHIA.
In the first of these schools the children are of American parentage, in the second of Italian parentage. In the first, the children speak English at home; in the second, the children speak a foreign language. In the first the standard of living conditions is high; in the second, compared to American standards, the living conditions are poor, especially in regard to the variety and selection of foods. In the first of these schools the teachers have had experience and have shown themselves capable in teaching ability. In the second the teachers are young and inexperienced, and little effort is made to solve the problems which are theirs, and very little preparation and care is taken, either in the school work or in the preparation of the mid-morning and mid-afternoon lunches.
The children of the first group come from homes where the best physical care is given them, while those of the second group have little physical care. Their food is poor, not because of lack of quality or quantity but because it is not suited to their needs. Their clothing is good but always soiled, baths are rare and much of their time is spent on the street where they are exposed to all sorts of weather and to the many opportunities for infection they find there. The increase in size above the standard given for children of five years indicates the effect on American children of good food given at regular times, of suitable hours of rest and of habits of cleanliness. On the other hand the children of the Italian group had good teeth, and their throats were in as good condition as those to be found in any group. Very few were suffering from colds. They did suffer though from skin diseases and cuts and contusions, the latter often because of measures of discipline.
The initiative and aggression shown in the first kindergarten was lacking in the second. The American children were happy, bubbling over with talk. The Italian children did not smile, and did not talk unless they were engaged in conversation. They showed no eagerness or interest in the work at hand as did the American children. On the other hand, they did much better work in rhythm than did their American friends, and they often broke out singing spontaneously while employed at their tiny tables. They sang well, keeping in good time and showing good memory for the words. Their singing was a great deal better than that at the first kindergarten.
There was a close relation between the work done in tests between the two groups. The first group were faster in the use of their hands in performance tests. They did not, however, show any better imageability. They had a greater energy output, but that was to be expected from their better physical condition. Except in the averages the memory spans were the same, and the second group were but .3 and .4 digits respectively less than the first group. In the field of language, however, there was no comparison. The first group were able to return a Binet age beyond that of their chronological age, in some cases increasing this from one to three years. But few of the second group were able to reach their chronological age, most of them falling much below it. The first group nearly all spoke English in the home, the second group almost all spoke Italian.
The first group ought to be able under good circumstances to do twice as much, or even more than twice as much, school work in a given time as will the second group. They are inclined in this direction, and all the urge behind them is tending to force them on. The home and school combine with their own social group to make them want to do well. The school and the home are neither particularly effective with the second group, and the social group cares not at all whether they go on or not. This is a powerful factor in the determination of ambitions. The balance for good school work is certainly in favor of the children of the first group in comparison with those of the second.
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