The Competency of Fifty College Students
The Psychological Clinic Copyright, 1919, by Lightner Witmer, Editor. Vol. XIV, Nos. 1-2 March, April, 1922 (A Diagnostic Study.) X :Author: Karl Greenwood Miller, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania.
Note: This article is part of a Monograph published in full in Experimental Studies in Psychology and Pedagogy, No. 8, 1922. Introduction. No task more worthy of attention confronts the psychologist today than the scientific study of the college student by means of mental tests.
Psychological tests were first employed in the examination and segregation of the mentally feeble. A large number of clinics connected with modern school systems, hospitals, or juvenile courts have found these tests of service in detecting mental subnormality. It has only been in the last decade, however, that the possibilities of the psychological examination of “normal” individuals have been recognized, and rapid advances are now being made in this field. The success with which mental tests were used in the classification and stratification of the great mass of men who formed our National Army probably did more to bring about a general acceptance of the method and principles involved than would have resulted from many years of experimentation in peace times. Today, psychological tests are used not only in the field of education but also form an integral part of the selective and administrative machinery of many large industrial organizations. The present vogue of the mental test carries with it one real danger in that the uninitiated are likely to demand more of the psychologist than he can give.
Without doubt it is now possible to say, as a result of a psychological examination, that one individual possesses too little mentality to admit of his being a self-supporting member of society, that another can be trained to perform a simple task satisfactorily, that a third has ability which will enable him to fill a place in the great middle class, while still another has intellectual endowments which should lead him into the fields of higher education and professional activity. These broad classifications can be made through the employment of many and various tests which have been carefully devised and scientifically standardized. With the concept of differing levels of general intelligence fairly well developed the psychologist now faces the task of classifying individuals. When the attempt is made not only to ascertain the general performance level but also to determine for what occupation the specific abilities of the individual best fits him, the difficulty of the problem is tremendously increased. Shall the man of small competency he a ditch-digger or a stevedore? Is the citizen of mediocre ability best qualified to follow the vocation of motorman, mechanic or clerk? Should the college student be guided into industry, law or teaching?
These questions imply that the psychologist must also function as a vocational adviser, and while this obligation may not at present be generally accepted, the implication is nevertheless warranted. Mental tests, if they are to be of value to society, must lead to prognoses as well as to diagnoses and must at least offer to the individual tested some information which may be useful in the attainment of greater personal and social efficiency. In much the same manner as the employment manager of today places the applicant in some particular position in his organization, so the psychologist of the future may find it possible to direct each member of society to the one vocation which will best utilize his peculiar qualifications. It is hardly necessary to point out that the problem of differentiation becomes increasingly complex as the higher levels of intellectual organization are approached. The idiot may be consigned to custodial care with but small probability of error. The stevedore, the scavenger, and the ditch-digger gravitate to their respective occupations without perceptible friction. The “common people” present a more difficult problem in view of their higher level of performance and greater complexity of response, but even here noteworthy advances have been made in recent years through the introduction of vocational guidance and the application of psychological principles to industrial management. Although investigation of this character has hardly passed beyond the experimental stage, a beginning has nevertheless been made, and remarkable developments during the next decade may be confidently anticipated.
The task of differentiating the particular abilities required of the successful plumber, mechanic, clerk, motorman, and telephone operator?to mention only a few of the almost countless range of occupations?is doubtless a difficult one, but it hardly approaches the complexity of the problem presented in the guidance of individuals of greater intelligence and higher intellectual organization to the one vocation for which each is best fitted. While interest, personality, and various external circumstances can not be disregarded as important factors in the selection of the life work, the concern of the psychologist lies primarily in the determination of the specific abilities requisite to each type of professional activity, and in the scientific evaluation of the particular abilities possessed by each individual. It is with the latter phase of the problem that this investigation will deal, the interest being centered on the college student, who, despite his many shortcomings, must be regarded as representative of the highest intellectual type of young manhood in the country. Experimental Conditions.
Stated briefly, the aim of the present study is to examine certain data which have been collected relative to each member of the class in elementary psychology at the University of Pennsylvania during the academic year 1919-20. This information consists of the score obtained in a “general intelligence examination,” the results of a series of psychological tests, a rating on estimated competency, and a rating based on the academic standing of the individual as determined by the final grades received in all courses completed at the University. The treatment of results will be concerned with the examination of correlations existing between the various ratings under consideration, and with the scrutiny of the individual record with a view to reaching, if possible, some conclusions which might be of assistance to the student in the direction of his intellectual development.
The investigation differs from many which have preceded it, in that the psychological tests, with one exception, were given as a part of the ordinary class instruction and therefore not primarily as tests. The elementary work in psychology consists of two courses known as Psychology 1 and 2, each requiring five hours of class attendance and continuing throughout one semester. Since credit in Psychology 1 is prerequisite to admission into Psychology 2, the two courses may be considered as a single introductory course lasting through the full academic year. Of the five hours of class attendance per week, only one hour is occupied by a formal lecture, the remaining four hours being devoted to laboratory work. During the first semester a number of mental tests are given as a part of the laboratory work and with the purpose of graphically demonstrating the various factors which function in the formation and development of the intellect. It is believed that this method enables the student better to understand and appreciate the particular ability or mental process under discussion. It is not claimed, therefore, that the series of tests employed would necessarily have been chosen had the purpose been the psychological examination and diagnosis of the individual to the exclusion of other considerations. However, the tests unquestionably provide a very satisfactory framework upon which to build a logical presentation of systematic psychology as well as offering a medium for the demonstration of fundamental psychological processes. In addition, the tests are extremely valuable to the student, in that they enable him to determine his peculiar mental assets and liabilities through a comparison of his individual results with accepted standards or class distributions.
The Psychological Tests.
The psychological tests included a general intelligence examination, the “Psychological Examination for College Freshmen and High School Seniors,” devised by Professor L. L. Thurstone, and the following thirteen tests designed to exercise some particular ability or group of abilities: (1) Ausfrage (Observation) Test, (2) Taylor Number Test, (3) Memory Span for Digits, (4) Memory Span for Syllables, (5) Memory Span for Ideas (6) Description of Formboard, (7) Trabue Language Test, (8) Courtis Arithmetic Test, (9) Differences and Likenesses Test, (10) Opposites Test, (11) Definitions Test, (12) Humpstone Memory Test, (13) Witmer Cylinder Test. Popular acceptance would seem to have stamped its seal of approval on a five-division rating scale. Cabbages and kings alike are usually judged mediocre, good or very good, poor or very poor. The great majority of our quantitative expressions are given in these terms, and the system seems to provide a sufficient number of significant levels without introducing the fallacy of too great refinement. This psychological justification of the five-point scale, as well as other considerations of convenience and facility of comparison, led to its adoption as the most satisfactory method of treating the various results and scores herein presented. In accordance with this decision, the results of each test given to the two hundred students who comprised the class in elementary psychology were arranged in rank order and separated into quintiles. While the nature of some of the tests has made even such a coarse rating as this quite difficult, it is believed that the system adopted is the most practicable that could have been devised for the present purpose. Since all grades assigned in the School of Arts and Science at the University of Pennsylvania are recorded in terms of a five-point system, an added advantage is gained in the comparison of test scores with academic success.
The results tabulated in a later section will therefore not be found to contain the number of digits for the memory span, the number of seconds required for the completion of the cylinder test, or the number of problems correctly solved in the general intelligence examination, but instead the translation of each of these scores into a quintile rating. If the performance of an individual places him in the best twenty per cent of the class in a particular test, he is given a rating of “5”, if in the poorest fifth of the group of two hundred, his quintile grade would be ” 1”. The upper, middle, and lower quintiles are represented by “4”, “3”, and “2”, respectively. By thus evaluating a given performance in terms of the class results, it will be found a relatively simple matter to scrutinize the ratings for each individual and gain a fairly trustworthy impression of his standing in an unselected group of university students, and at the same time to note his peculiar mental assets and liabilities.
Selection of Group.
Since it is the aim of this investigation to discover individual differences in a comparatively homogeneous group of students, it seemed advisable to make certain eliminations before undertaking an intensive study of test scores and college grades. Of the 220 students who registered for Psychology 1 at the beginning of the session of 1919-20, fifteen withdrew before the work of the semester was really under way, reducing the class to an actual enrolment of 205. Of these, 125 were taking the course in the School of Arts and Science, the remainder being students in the School of Education. This split also gives the approximate ratio of men to women in the class. During the semester twenty members of the class were dropped because of deficiency or received a failure upon the termination of the course which excluded them from participation in Psychology 2. Since it was deemed advisable to make the completion of both courses one of the requisites for inclusion in this study, these twenty students were automatically eliminated. In order to obtain homogeneity it was also decided not to introduce sex differences but to limit the investigation to male students enrolled in the School of Arts and Science. Of the 125 men who originally started the course only 113 were eligible for Psychology 2, and of these only eighty received final grades at the end of the second semester. Since one of the ratings to be taken into consideration is based on academic standing, it was thought best not to include first-year students in the selected group, thereby eliminating all who were not able to survive at least one year of university work, reducing the variation in age, and alt the same time making it possible to base the academic rating on college grades received during two or more years of class attendance.
When these eliminations had been made, fifty-one students were eligible for inclusion in this study. Of this number, one individual over thirty years of age was arbitrarily excluded as not conforming to the normal college age. Of the fifty remaining as subjects of this investigation, thirty-three had sophomore standing, twelve were rated as juniors, and five were seniors. The average age for the group as of October 1, 1919, was 20.8 years, that of the sophomores being 20.5 years, and of the juniors and seniors, 21.3 and 21.4 years respectively. Although the averages in the latter cases are not of great significance due to the small size of the groups in question, the figures quoted do show that the larger group of fifty is composed of students of approximately normal college age. In conclusion, it will be well to point out that although only about one-fourth of the total class in psychology is to be included in the study, the selection was made on the basis of group qualifications and without regard to individual merit, except for the automatic elimination of those members of the class who were excluded for deficiency in scholarship.
The Competency Rating.
One purpose of this investigation was to determine what reliance may be placed on the “snap judgment” of a trained observer. Is it possible to rate the college student with any degree of accuracy on the basis of an interview covering no more than five minutes? Can the experienced psychologist estimate the ability of an individual by noting his appearance and carriage, and by obtaining his reaction to a few simple questions and observing his performance with a mechanical test? It was with a view to answering such questions as these that each member of the first-year class in psychology was personally interviewed by either Professor Witmer, Professor Twitmyer or Dr Humpstone, and given a competency rating on the basis of five minutes’ observation. Each student was required to replace the insets of the Witmer cylinder test twice, as described in the preceding section. The qualitative aspect of this performance had considerable weight in determining the competency rating, and it should be understood that while coordination, attention, understanding, trainability and intelligence are all reflected in the time scores of the two cylinder trials, the latter do not necessarily correlate with a rating based on the quality of the performance. As has been previously noted, the cylinder test is the only one considered in this study which was given individually.
The rating, however, was not based solely on the performance with the cylinders. As the student presented himself to the examiner, he was asked to write his name upon a record card, and the character of his writing as well as the degree of composure displayed were observed. A few leading questions were then asked regarding preparatory school, purpose in coming to the University, intended vocation, outside activities, and the like. No attempt was made to ask the same questions of each individual, but rather to carry on a short conversation which varied naturally with the replies given. The subject was then given the cylinder test, following the procedure previously outlined, and after answering one or two questions as to his work in psychology was dismissed. As a rule the whole interview consumed no more than five minutes. While all three of the examiners had come into some contact with members of the class through lecture work, no one of them knew the students personally or had had occasion to be familiar with the type of work done by any individual. The rating was therefore based entirely upon an observation of the student’s behavior as displayed in his general bearing and address, his answers to the questions, and his performance with the cylinders. In this respect, the competency rating here employed differs from the rating on estimated intelligence which has frequently been used in connection with investigations of this character. Such a rating has usually been given by an instructor familiar with the student and with his work in the classroom, or by averaging the estimates made by a number of instructors so qualified. The competency rating is therefore not directly comparable with the ratings on estimated intelligence referred to in a preceding section.
In giving these ratings, the five-point scale was used in a somewhat modified form. Each of the five points of the scale was subdivided into five lesser grades, thus giving a maximum rating of 5.5, a minimum of 1.1, and a mediocre grade of 3.3. When each student had been rated on this scale, the three examiners in conference arranged the members of the class in rank order on the basis of estimated competency. Since it is felt that individual differences in the standards of the three examiners somewhat reduces the significance of the actual rating assigned, the rank order has been employed in determining a quintile rating on estimated competency, which appears in the tabulation of results. This treatment has the added advantage of making the rating directly comparable with the quintile scores of the various mental tests.
Tabulation of Results.
While it was intended to make a statistical study of the various scores and ratings which form a basis for this investigation, the primary purpose was to study the individual record rather than the Tabulation of Results.
1 So. 3 4 2 2 So. 5 4 4 3 So. 2 1 3 4 So. 5 2 3 5 So. 3 5 4 6 Jr. 5 5 3 7 So. 4 2 3 8 So. 4 4 1 9 So. 4 2 3 10 So. 12 4 11 Jr. 13 3 12 So. 4 3 4 13 So. 4 3 5 14 Sr. 5 5 2 15 Sr. 5 5 4 16 So. 4 5 2 17 So. 1 1 2 18 So. 5 3 3 19 So. 5 3 3 20 So. 5 3 4 21 So. 4 4 4 22 So. 2 23 So. 3 2 4 24 So. 3 5 5 25 Jr. 3 5 2 26 Jr. 14 3 27 So. 5 5 4 28 So. 3 5 5 29 Jr. 4 5 3 30 Sr. 4 5 4 31 Jr. 4-5 32 So. 5 3 2 33 So. 13 1 34 Sr. 5 2 2 35 Jr. 5 3 5 36 Jr. 4 4 3 37 Jr. 2 4 4 38 So. 2-2 39 So. 14 4 40 So. 4 1 3 41 So. 3 5 1 42 So. 5 5 3 43 Jr. 3 5 2 44 So. 3 5 4 45 So. 3 1 5 46 Sr. 2 4 4 47 So. 5 4 2 48 Jr. 5 549 So. 2 4 2 50 Jr. 5 2 1 Memory Span 13 3 5 4 5 3 3 2 2 3 5 1 3 1 5 3 2 2 3 5 3 4 3 3 3 3 2 3 4 5 3 2 13 3 5 3 4 5 4 3 3 4 5 2 2 3 4 3 2 3 3 5 5 4 5 3 4 3 3 3 4 3 3 3 2 3 3 5 3 4 2 2 3 14 4 5 4 5 3 33 3 5 2 3 4 2 4 3 2 4 3 2 1 3 5 3 3 5 3 3 5 44 3 3 4 3 2 3 3 3 2 4 4 2 2 3 2 3 4 2 3 3 2 4 4 2 2 3 2 3 2 3 3 4 5 4 3 2 5 1 3 4 3 2 2 4 5 5 2 5 5 4 5 5 2 1 4 5 2 1 2 1 2 1 5 5 2 5 4 5 4 - 2 1 4 1 1 3 5 5 2 5 1 4 5 3 3 1 5 3 3 5 4 3 3 5 3 2 5 2 5 3 3 4 2 1 3 2 4 3 4 5 4 3 4 3 4 1 3 2 1 3 4 2 5 5 2 5 2 4 3 1 3 3 5 4 5 1 1 2 2 1 1 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 4 3 3 3 4 3 3 3 4 3 3 1 2 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 3 3 3 3 - 3 3 2 3 4 4 5 3 3 3 4 2 3 1 3 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 3 4 3 2 3 3 3 3 1 4 4 4 2 5 3 2 3 3 2 a o s 4 ? 3 3 2 1 5 1 1 2 4 4 2 1 3 3 4 2 4 5 4 2 4 2 1 3 5 2 3 2 4 4 2 2 4 5 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 3 5 2 4 2 4 1 2 2 4 4 4 2 3 1 5 - 3 2 5 1 5 3 5 4 5 2 2 2 4 3 3 2 4 5 4 2 4 4 5 3 4 4 4 3 4 5 4 3 4 2 5 J I I fi-J |g ^ Ort o 03 [?? 0 o o o? <Pi cS 2 1 2 2.9 3 4.5 G D~ 4 4 4 3.9 5 4.7 D D 4 5 2 2.6 4 3.4 N N 1 2 1 3.3 3 3.6 G P 5 2 5 3.0 2 3.9 P P 1 1 1 3.3 1 3.8 P P 5 5 5 3.1 5 3.2 N F 2 2 2 2.8 3 3.6 P G 5 5 5 3.0 5 4.1 G G 3 4 4 2.5 4 3.5 P P 4 1 4 3.5 1 4.2 P G 3 2 3 3.0 3 4.1 P G 5 5 5 3.5 5 4.5 G D 3 1 3 3.7 4 4.2 G G 5 4 5 3.5 5 3.5 P P 3 3 3 2.8 2 3.7 P P 1 3 1 2.3 1 3.7 P G 3 3 3 3.3 3 4.5 P D 1 3 1 3.5 4 3.9 P P 1 2 1 3.0 4 3.4 P P 4 2 4 3.5 4 4.2 P D 1 1 1 3.0 1 3.5 P P 3 4 4 3.2 4 3.7 P N 5 2 5 3.7 4 3.1 P P 3 4 3 3.2 3 3.3 N P 5 3 5 2.9 3 4.0 P P 3 4 3 3.8 3 4.4 D D 2 2 2 3.8 3 4.7 D D 4 5 4 3.4 5 4.0 D G 5 3 5 3.5 3 3.7 P N 4 3 4 3.0 4 4.0 G P 1 3 2 2.5 2 4.6 D G 3 1 3 2.5 1 3.1 P N 3 3 4 3.3 4 4.3 D G 5 5 5 3.9 5 3.7 G G 2 3 2 3.5 4 3.0 G P 5 4 5 3.3 3 3.4 P G 4 4 4 2.8 2 3.0 P P 4 5 4 2.7 2 3.1 P P 1 1 1 3.0 1 3.9 G P 5 5 1 3.2 5 3.5 G G 5 5 5 3.6 5 4.5 G D 1 1 1 3.1 1 3.2 P P 3 5 3 3.6 4 4.2 G G 1 2 1 2.4 2 4.1 P P 5 5 5 3.6 5 2.9 P N 1 1 1 3.0 2 3.5 N F 5 5 5 3.7 5 3.4 G P 2 4 1 2.5 2 3.7 P N 3 1 3 2.4 3 3.9 G P
mass results. It has therefore been deemed advisable to present a complete tabulation of the ratings for each member of the group, and thereby facilitate the scrutiny of the individual case. In the following table will be found (1) the number used to designate each student in the group, (2) his class, whether sophomore, junior, or senior, (3) the quintile rating for the Thurstone test, (4) the quintile rating for each of the thirteen mental tests with the addition of the ratings for the first and second trials with the cylinders, (5) the composite test rating obtained by averaging the ratings for the thirteen separate tests?this average does not include the Thurstone test and only the shortest trial with the cylinders is included, (6) the quintile rating based on estimated competency, (7) the final grades in Psychology 1 and Psychology 2, (8) the academic rating obtained by averaging college grades as previously described.
In studying the tabulation of results it must be borne in mind that in every case the quintile rating was obtained from the distribution of the results of the class of approximately two hundred students, and not merely on the basis of the fifty here included. This explains the fact that the ratings are not equally divided among the five quintiles.
Analysis of Individual Records. No. 1. This student shows a consistently mediocre record until his college grades are observed, when he is found to have one of the highest academic ratings of the group. Placed in the middle quintile in the Thurstone test as well as in estimated competency, his average test rating is well below the median. As for the separate tests, he has received the highest rating in none, and the lowest only in the memory span for digits. In general, the higher scores are exhibited in those tests which involve language ability and memory, and the lower where these factors are not prominent, namely, in the Taylor number test, the Courtis test, and the cylinders. In view of the high grades in psychology and the high academic rating it seems probable that this student has some strong motive, such as ambition, and supplements a mediocre intellect with an unusual amount of industry.
No. 2. This record shows the most consistently high rating to be found in the group. The academic record is the highest, and this is borne out by “distinguished” grades in both courses in psychology. The ratings for estimated competency and for the Thurstone test are both in the fifth quintile, while the average test rating is equaled by only one other student in the group. In considering the results of the particular tests, it will be observed that this student has not fallen below the middle quintile, but has reached the highest in only three tests. He shows the poorer scores in those tests which stress language ability and memory, and the higher ratings where intelligence, imagination and attention are involved. The general level of performance is so high as to make any specific recommendation or prognosis unsafe.
No. 3. The chief point of interest in this case is the lack of correspondence between the competency rating and the remainder of the data at hand. This student shows an academic rating which places him in the poorest fifth of the group, with conditions for both courses in psychology. Although in the second quintile in the Thurstone test, his average test rating is one of the lowest recorded. He rates above the middle quintile only in the sentence completion and cylinder tests. This may indicate good intelligence not directed toward college work, but the conclusion that the competency rating is too high in this case seems justified.
No. 4. The indication here is of a student of somewhat more than average general intelligence whose record is largely influenced by interest in the task at hand. With an academic rating slightly above the average and a”G” and “P” in psychology, his score in the Thurstone test puts him in the highest quintile. The composite test rating is slightly above the average, and shows a preponderance of “5’s” as well as a number of “2’s” and a “1”. High ratings in the memory span for ideas, the sentence completion and the definitions tests, as contrasted with a very poor cylinder performance, indicate intellectual ability rather than intelligence.
No. 5. This record shows a student somewhat below the average in competency, with an academic rating slightly better than would be expected from the test results. Passing grades in both courses in psychology, estimated competency in the second quintile, and the median rating for the Thurstone test all indicate mediocre ability. This is borne out by an average test rating below the mean for the group. Performances in the memory spans for digits and ideas, and in the definitions and memory tests were rated in the lowest quintile. High scores were obtained in the Ausfrage and Courtis tests and in the second trial with the cylinders. Although the test results show great variation, there seems to be no definite tendency displayed.
No. 6. This individual probably possesses mediocre ability, although receiving a veiy low competency rating and a very high score on the Thurstone test. A fair academic rating with passing work in psychology, and a test rating slightly below the average seem to indicate that neither the Thurstone test nor the competency rating gives a true picture of the student. High scores in the Ausfrage, digit span, Trabue, opposites and memory tests, with very poor cylinder performances, would suggest fair intellect coupled with rather deficient intelligence.
No. 7. The record here indicates relatively low competency with a high degree of native intelligence. A very poor academic rating is substantiated by a condition and a failure in the two courses in psychology, and a low average test rating. An exceptionally good performance with the cylinders and a high rating on the Thurstone test and the idea span, with lower scores on the test requiring language ability and memory, lead to the conclusion that this man is misplaced in college, but would probably succeed in a pursuit which does not stress intellectual development. No. 8. There are no outstanding features in the record of this student. The academic rating and the Thurstone score are both slightly above the average, while the test rating is somewhat below. The tests which emphasize the intellectual side usually show good scores, while those which do not depend on language ability, such as the Taylor number, the Courtis, and the cylinder tests, are placed in the lower quintiles. On the whole, the record is mediocre.
No. 9. In this instance, a high academic rating, good work in psychology, a high competency rating and a good score on the Thurstone test fail to correlate with a rather low test rating. Median scores on seven of the tests, with only one result in the highest and one in the lowest quintile, indicate a rather consistent mediocrity. A high rating in the memory test and an excellent cylinder performance suggest that good memory and intelligence are responsible for the high academic standing.
No. 10. A competency rating of “4” indicates that this man was not doing his best on the mental tests. Mediocre college work and a low rating on the Thurstone test suggest that the competency rating is too high. The test scores are generally low where language ability is involved, and are above the average for the Taylor, idea span, memory and cylinder tests. As in Case 7, it seems likely that this individual is not profiting by his college course and would be more successful in some other line of activity.
No. 11. The record of this student is quite inconsistent. Placed in the lowest quintile in the Thurstone test and competency rating, his test and academic ratings are well above the average. The low score in the first cylinder trial indicates a lack of intelligence, while the marked improvement on the second trial indicates good trainability. The low rating on the Trabue test and idea span, contrasted with high ratings for the Courtis and Humpstone memory tests, suggest an efficient and retentive mind rather than a- quick and imaginative one. That this man is a slow thinker is demonstrated by his score on the Thurstone test. The fact that he retains and digests the information which he acquires is evidenced by his high academic record.
No. 12. This student displays a record consistently near the average for the group. The Thurstone and academic ratings are somewhat better than the mean, the competency rating is in the third quintile, and the test rating slightly below the average. Of the separate tests, seven are rated in the third quintile, a poor score on digit span and a very high rating on the Trabue test being the only significant scores. On the whole, the competency rating seems to express the ability of the student adequately.
No. .13. The record in this case is consistently high. Very good grades in the two courses in psychology substantiate an academic rating which is exceeded by only three members of the group. A competency rating of “5” and a Thurstone rating of “4” correlate with a high test rating. The only rating in the lowest quintile is that on the memory test and when this is contrasted with an exceptionally good performance with the cylinders, it seems reasonable to conclude that this student depends more on intelligence than on memory in his college work. Almost without exception ratings in the upper quintiles are displayed for the tests which do not stress language ability, while lower ratings are found where this factor is of great importance.
No. 14. This record presents an interesting contrast with that of student No. 13 in that the intellectual rather than the intelligence factors are here stressed. While not quite so good from the academic viewpoint, this record shows a slightly higher rating for the Thurstone and other mental tests than does the preceding case. Ratings of “5” on the Ausfrage, digit span, Trabue, and memory tests indicate associability, language ability and retentiveness, while a rating in the lowest quintile for the first cylinder trial implies comparatively poor intelligence. A much better record on the second trial with the cylinders shows trainability, which, coupled with a high memory span and good memory, pictures a student of more than average intellect.
No. 15. The indication here is of a man of high general intelligence who does not care to apply himself to college work. On the one hand his academic rating is mediocre and he has obtained merely passing grades in psychology, while contrasted with this are Thurstone and competency ratings in the highest quintile, and a combined test rating well above the average. The low rating on the Courtis test is probably the only score of particular significance, and seems to indicate laziness and lack of interest. In view of the higher scores on the other tests this explanation may also hold for the low rating on definitions. On the whole the picture is that of a student with real ability who does not care to exert himself.
No. 16. In spite of a good rating on the Thurstone test, this record indicates an individual of somewhat less than average ability. Although the academic rating is fair, the competency rating and the composite test rating are both low. Ratings below the middle quintile are found for the Taylor number test, the digit and syllable spans, the Trabue and definitions tests, while only the ratings for the Ausfrage, Courtis and memory tests are better than the average. It seems likely that this student supplements good retentiveness with more than the usual degree of industry in passing his college work.
No. 17. Thurstone and competency ratings in the lowest quintile combined with the lowest composite test rating of the group indicate decidedly inferior ability in this case. Eight of the separate test ratings are below the middle quintile and only three are above. Low ratings on the Thurstone, Taylor, Trabue, Courtis, opposites and cylinder tests, all of which involve a definite speed factor, suggest that a slow rate of discharge is primarily responsible for the poor test performances of this individual. High ratings in the digit span, description, and definitions tests, in all of which the time element is relatively unimportant, seem to bear out this conclusion. An observation of the scores of the three memory span tests shows that as the material becomes more complicated the rating is lower. This man evidently needs time to think, and does well when the time is not limited. This fact explains the lack of correlation between the test ratings and the academic record, which is at least average, and it also emphasizes the undue weight given to the time factor in most mental tests.
No. 18. This record displays the interesting combination of a very high academic rating with mediocre performance in the various mental tests. The record is quite comparable with that of student No. 1 with the exception that in this case nine of the thirteen test results are found in the middle quintile. High ratings in the Thurstone and Courtis tests suggest alertness, and this ability, in conjunction with a good rating on memory, may be partly responsible for the success in college work. It seems probable, however, that some motivation factor which cannot be measured by the test results has played an important part in the academic attainments of this student.
No. 19. In this case the record, with the exception of the grades in psychology, is consistently above the average. Low ratings on the Courtis and cylinder tests might suggest a slow rate of discharge were it not for a very high rating on the Thurstone test. High scores on the three memory span tests, the Trabue, definitions, and memory tests show associability, retentiveness, and language ability, which may be looked upon as essential factors in intellectual development. The low rating on the cylinders hardly seems significant in view of the other test results, although it may indicate a deficiency in mechanical as contrasted with mental ability.
No. 20. This record provides an interesting comparison with that of student No. 19. Although the psychology grades, competency rating, and Thurstone rating are identical, this student has a somewhat lower academic rating and a correspondingly lower composite test rating. Even the ratings for the separate tests show similar tendencies, but the scores for the Courtis and cylinder tests are lower here than in the preceding case. The most significant difference between the two records is found in the very low memory rating of this student, which places him definitely in the mediocre group.
No. 21. This record is one of the most consistent to be found in the group and places the student definitely in the fourth quintile. The academic rating is quite high, the Thurstone and competency ratings are both “4”, and the composite test rating is well above the average. The separate test scores indicate little, since all but two of the ratings are in the middle and upper quintile. Although the first cylinder trial was slow, the second trial compensated for this deficiency. There is no comment to make on this case other than a desire that mental tests might always correlate so closely with academic standing.
No. 22 While this record is, on the whole, mediocre, the academic rating is somewhat higher than might be expected in view of the low Thurstone and competency ratings. The latter may possibly be accounted for by the poor intelligence displayed in both cylinder performances, while good ratings on the tests requiring language ability, and particularly on the memory test, provide a satisfactory explanation for the fair academic rating. From the test results it seems probable that this individual has to apply himself to his studies in order to do passing work.
No. 23. The failure in Psychology 2 is the only discordant note in an otherwise mediocre record. The composite test rating and that for the Thurstone test are about average for the group, while the competency rating is in the fourth quintile. The separate test results do not seem significant except for a high rating in memory. The poor work in psychology must probably be accounted for by lack of interest or failure to study.
No. 24. The record here is comparable with that of student No. 15 in that a high composite test rating is contrasted with a low academic rating. In this case, however, the discrepancy is even more marked. The test rating is exceeded by only four members of the group, while only two have poorer college records. The separate test results present no solution to the difficulty since the ratings are high with only one exception. The competency rating is “4”. It seems probable that this man is not particularly interested in his college work and is expending most of his time and energy in some kind of outside activity.
No. 25. In this instance the record is consistently mediocre. All four of the general ratings are either in the middle quintile or slightly below the group average. The failure in Psychology 1 is hardly to be accounted for by the separate test results, which display no definite tendency, and was probably due to lack of application, since the student was able to pass the second course.
No. 26. The rather high academic rating in this case seems to contradict the low Thurstone and composite test ratings. The low digit span and the poor rating on the memory test indicate that this student must be a hard worker in order to have received such high grades for his college courses. Good trainability as displayed in the second trial with the cylinders may be a significant factor in his academic work.
No. 27. In this case a very high score on the Thurstone test correlates well with a high composite test rating and a high academic rating. “Distinguished” grades in both courses in psychology also indicate general superiority. A poor performance on the second trial with the cylinders which resulted in a competency rating of only “3” is the only flaw in an otherwise excellent record. Eight of the thirteen tests are rated above the middle quintile and indicate nothing more than an unusually high level of general intelligence.
No. 28. This record offers an interesting comparison with that of student No. 27. The composite test ratings and the competency ratings are identical in the two cases, while the academic ratings are very nearly so. Both students received the highest grade in both courses in psychology. In this instance, however, the Thurstone score is mediocre, and the ratings for the Trabue and cylinder tests are in the second quintile. The ratings on those tests which stress language ability are generally higher than in the preceding case, while the memory spans are conspicuously lower. These facts indicate a relatively low intelligence coupled with a rather high intellectual development. On the whole, the student is decidedly superior to the majority of the group.
No. 29. The record in this case must be considered consistently good although it can hardly be compared with either of the two preceding cases in general excellence. The academic rating shows a “G” average and the psychology grades rate the student even higher. While the Thurstone rating is “4”, the rating on estimated competency is higher than that in either of the preceding records. This rating is not substantiated by the results of the separate tests, only four of which are found to be above the middle quintile. These seem to point to intelligence rather than to intellectual organization, although it would be unsafe to make any specific diagnosis. No. 30. This record displays a relatively high test rating and a Thurstone rating in the fourth quintile contrasted with an average academic rating and unsatisfactory grades in psychology. While the separate test scores indicate somewhat erratic performances, very high ratings on the memory and cylinder tests show that this individual has unusual ability in some directions. It seems probable that lack of interest or want of application is responsible for the deficiency in psychology.
No. 31. The mediocre composite test rating in this case does not correlate with the generally high level of the other ratings, all of which are in the fourth quintile. Although the separate test results are distributed through the five quintiles, they show no definite tendency which might be considered explanatory. Possibly the high degree of trainability displayed in the second cylinder trial is significant, but it seems likely that this student either did not take the tests seriously or that some strong motivation factor has entered into his college work.
No. 32. This record presents as great a contradiction as is to be found in the whole group. While only two students have academic records which exceed the rating in this case, only three have lower composite test ratings. Moreover, the estimated competency rating is “2” and the Thurstone test rating “5”. Only three students have better grades in the two psychology courses. In the separate tests, low ratings were received on the Taylor number, digit span, Trabue, differences, definitions, and second cylinder trial. Only the syllable span and memory tests were rated higher than the middle quintile, the latter receiving the only “5” of the series. It seems hardly possible to explain the excellent academic record on the basis of good memory alone, and the only conclusion which can be reached is that the test results do not reflect the evident competency of this student.
No. 33. All things taken into consideration, this is the poorest record in the group. The academic rating is low and one of the courses in psychology was not passed. The competency rating and that on the Thurstone test are both in the lowest quintile, the score on the latter test being the lowest made by any of the fifty students. The composite test rating is one of the lowest in the group, and only two of the separate test results are placed above the middle quintile. A rating of “5” in the memory test suggests that this ability may have enabled the student to stay in college. Low ratings on the Taylor, digit span, syllable span, Trabue, differences, opposites and definitions tests and the first trial with the cylinders indicate a very general deficiency. The test results in this case are quite similar to those in the record of student No. 32, but seem here to be really significant.
No. 34. In this instance, the various ratings of the record correlate well to show better than average competency. The academic rating is good, the psychology grades very good, and the competency rating is in the fourth quintile. The Thurstone score is high, and while the composite test rating is only fair, the separate test results show no marked deficiencies. Low ratings in the Ausfrage and Taylor tests are not particularly significant, while higher ratings in the digit span, Courtis, and memory tests and second cylinder trial indicate associability, speed, retentiveness and trainability. On the whole, the record shows no contradictions.
No. 35. This record is consistent in so far as the composite test rating, the Thurstone rating and the competency rating are concerned. The test rating is equaled only by student No. 2, and both of the other ratings place this student in the highest quintile. In academic work, however, only an average rating is to be found, and the explanation must probably be based on lack of interest in studies or absorption in other activities. High ratings on the Taylor number, digit span, Trabue, Courtis, definitions and memory tests, on both trials with the cylinders, and on the Thurstone test indicate that this student has the ability to do excellent college work if he so desires.
No. 36. Although a number of the separate test results are missing in this record, the ratings on the Thurstone test and estimated competency as well as the composite test rating indicate a rather high level of mentality. The academic rating, however, is one of the lowest in the group and shows that conditions and failures were received in a number of courses, even though the work in psychology was somewhat above the average. The evidence seems fairly conclusive that this man could do better college work if he wished to apply himself. Interest in outside activities probably explains the discrepancy between the test ratings and the academic record.
No. 37. With the exception of a low rating on the Thurstone test, this record is consistently mediocre. The academic rating, competency rating and composite test rating all appear in the middle quintile. A good performance on the first trial with the cylinders, followed by an excellent second trial, indicate intelligence and trainability, while a low rating on the memory test may explain the mediocre college record.
No. 38. The record in this instance is consistently below the average for the group and may be considered typical of the second quintile. The academic rating is low, the psychology grades merely passing, the competency rating and the Thurstone rating are both “2”, and the composite test rating decidedly below the average. Low ratings were received on the Taylor number, idea span, description, and Trabue tests, while the digit span, definitions and cylinder tests were rated above the middle quintile. No ratings in the highest quintile appear. An analysis of these results seems to indicate good associability and intelligence coupled with rather deficient intellectual organization. This man would probably be more successful in business than in an academic or professional vocation.
No. 39. This record disputes with that of student No. 33 the distinction of being the poorest in the group. The fact that the student was excluded from the University at the end of the session gives peculiar interest to this case. An observation of the grades received in college courses discloses the significant fact that eight units of work were assigned a grade of “D”, while an equal number received a “G”. Eight units of credit were merely “Passed”, conditions were given for three units, and the remaining eight units received the grade “F”. Passing grades were assigned for both courses in psychology. This unusual distribution of grades suggests specific ability along certain lines with marked variations in interest. The student would probably have received “Distinguished” grades in all of his college work if he had been allowed free election of courses. Low ratings on the Thurstone and Courtis tests show that he cannot think quickly, while poor scores in the Trabue and memory tests indicate deficiency in imagination and retentiveness. High ratings on the Taylor number and cylinder tests show that there is no deficiency in the rate of discharge of energy, and that distribution of attention and intelligence are both above the average. It seems probable that this man, now being free to follow his own inclinations, will be successful in the vocation which he chooses. The case is particularly interesting as an example of the influence of special abilities and of motivation in the behavior of the individual.
No. 40. In this case a very low competency rating is contradicted by a composite test rating only slightly below the average and Thurstone and academic ratings in the fourth quintile. The competency rating was doubtless influenced by very poor performances in both cylinder trials, but this deficiency in intelligence is compensated for by high ratings in the syllable and idea spans, Courtis, definitions and memory tests. In other words this student has the associability, alertness, language ability and retentiveness necessary to do good college work. It is possible, also, that lack of interest in the tests may have affected the significance of the results.
No. 41. This is a consistently mediocre record with the exception of the psychology grades, which are slightly above the average, and the competency rating, which is very high. The academic rating is slightly below the median and the composite test rating is median for the group. The Thurstone score is placed in the middle quintile. High ratings are shown for the Ausfrage, Courtis, and first cylinder trial. The latter, however, is offset by a very poor performance in the second trial with the cylinders. Low ratings also appear for the Taylor number, digit and syllable spans, Trabue, and memory tests. These results indicate rather poor general intelligence and suggest that the competency rating is too high.
No. 42. Every one of the principal ratings in this record occurs in the highest quintile, and the student must be ranked definitely with the leaders of the group. High ratings on the Ausfrage, description, Trabue, and memory tests and on both cylinder trials show good observation, imagination, retentiveness and intelligence. A low rating on the digit span is neutralized by a high idea span. Other low ratings on the Courtis and opposites tests do not seem significant. On the whole the record is unusually consistent and justifies the high competency rating.
No. 43. Although the composite test rating in this case is about average for the group, the academic rating is decidedly inferior. The competency rating is the lowest given to any member of the class, and is based on very poor performances with the cylinders. Although this student seems to lack intelligence, high ratings were obtained in the Ausfrage, Trabue, and definitions tests. Low ratings for the Taylor number, digit span, and Courtis tests indicate a consistently poor performance in those tests which do not involve language ability. The good ratings in the strictly intellectual tests suggest that outside activities are responsible for the low academic rating.
No. 44. This record seems to be typical of the fourth quintile. The academic record shows a preponderance of “Good” grades, and this mark was received for both courses in psychology. The competency rating is “4” and the Thurstone rating “3”. The composite test rating is one of the best in the group, although fifth quintile ratings appear only for the Ausfrage test and the first cylinder trial. Other test ratings show a high level of general intelligence with no significant disabilities.
No. 45. An academic record in the fourth quintile is accompanied in this case by a Thurstone score in the middle quintile, a competency rating in the second, and a composite test rating in the lowest quintile of the group. This unanimous absence of correlation is also shown in the separate test results where ratings in all five quintiles appear. A high rating on the Taylor number test suggests good distribution of attention, but even this ability must have been lacking in the cylinder performances. The test results show no definite tendency, but display a low level of general intelligence. The high academic rating notwithstanding, this student falls below the middle quintile of the group in competency.
No. 46. The lowest academic rating in the group is displayed by this senior, who, nevertheless, was able to graduate with his class. While the Thurstone score is poor, the competency rating and the composite test rating are both high. The separate test results are low for digit and idea spans, but high for most of the other tests with exceptionally good performances on the cylinder test. This student was evidently doing no more college work than was necessary to obtain his degree, and was probably interested in outside activities.
No. 47. The competency rating, composite test rating, and academic rating agree in placing this student in the second quintile. The rating on the Thurstone test is very high, and the grades in psychology the poorest in the group, consisting of an “N” for the first course and a “Failure” for the second. High ratings on the Thurstone and Courtis suggest a rather quick mind when familiar operations are involved, while the very low ratings on the cylinder test indicate inability to meet a new problem successfully. Since the subjectmatter of the courses in psychology is quite unlike that of most college courses, the inability of the student to adapt himself to the new situation is probably the cause of his deficient work in this subject. Although the result for the memory test is missing, a high rating in that ability may be predicted.
No. 48. In this record the composite test rating, the competency rating and the Thurstone rating indicate a very high level of general intelligence. The academic rating, however, is far below the average for the group. Of the separate test results, only two fall below the middle quintile. The low ratings on the Trabue and Courtis tests are difficult to explain in the light of the other test ratings, five of which are in the highest quintile. Excellent associability, language ability, retentiveness, and intelligence are displayed in the various test scores, and the only explanation of the relatively poor college grades seems to lie in lack of interest or absorption in outside activities.
No. 49. Although the Thurstone score, the competency rating, the composite test rating, and the grades in psychology agree in placing this student below the middle quintile, the academic rating is the median for the group. As is frequently the case where this situation is encountered, the rating on the memory test is high. In addition to this test only the Ausfrage and the syllable span were rated higher than the middle quintile, while eight of the thirteen tests fell below that level. It seems certain that more than the usual amount of industry is expended by this individual on his college work.
No. 50. This record is quite similar to that of student No. 49 with the exception that the composite test rating is slightly lower and the academic rating somewhat higher than in the preceding case. Here, however, the Thurstone rating is high and the competency rating and psychology grades average. Of the separate test results, only the rating on the memory test is in the highest quintile. The ratings for the Taylor number, description, Trabue, Courtis and first cylinder tests are in the lowest quintile. The second trial with the cylinders indicates good trainability, which with the assistance of an unusually good memory may account for the high academic rating. On the other hand, lack of effort in the tests may be responsible for the low composite test rating, and is suggested by the high score on the Thurstone test.
Summary. A scrutiny of the analyses of the fifty individual records shows that these may be separated into two general groups. In twenty-six cases the correlation between the various ratings is close enough to present fairly conclusive evidence of the relative performance level of the student. These cases, in turn, naturally fall into five classes corresponding roughly with the points of a five-division scale, which may be referred to here as very good, good, medium, poor, and very poor. Seven records are so consistently high as to warrant a place in the first group, while five more are distinctly better than the average and may be considered “good”. Eight cases occur in the “medium” class, and of ?he six which fall below this level two are “poor” and four show such a general inferiority as to justify placement in the lowest group. The twenty-four remaining records, which display a decided lack of correlation between the various major ratings, exhibit two opposing tendencies. In fourteen cases the academic rating is higher than would be predicted from the test results, while in the ten remaining cases the Thurstone score, competency rating and composite test rating would seem to indicate better scholastic ability than is displayed in the academic rating and psychology grades. The following summary shows the classification of each individual record.
Classification of Individual Records. I. Cases showing general correlation of ratings: Very good 2, 13, 14, 27, 28, 42, 44 Good 11, 18, 19, 21, 29 Medium. , 4, 5, 6, 20, 23, 37, 40,’41 Poor 22, 47 Very poor. .3, 33, 38, 39 II. Cases where correlation is lacking: High academic, medium mental 1, 9, 12, 31, 34 High academic, low mental 26, 32, 45 Medium academic, low mental 8, 10, 16,^17, 49, 50 High mental, medium academic 15, 30, 35 High mental, low academic 24, 36. 46, 48 Medium mental, low academic 7. 25, 43 : Although in some cases the evidence is not so clear cut as the summary above may seem to indicate, the classification nevertheless is justified by the data at hand. It also seems reasonable to attribute the absence of correlation shown in the second group of records to variations in motivation and other external factors which have not as yet lent themselves to quantitative measurement. Of two men who have the same composite test rating and who may be assumed to possess equal competency, one may be intensely interested in his studies and impelled by a consuming ambition to gain the greatest possible benefit from his college course, while the other is content to do only the amount of work necessaiy to fulfil the minimum scholastic requirements and seeks to excel in athletic or social activities. Again, the first student may be devoting all of his time and effort to college work, while the second is compelled to expend much of his energy in supporting himself. Certainly no series of mental tests will correlate closely with academic standing until some satisfactory method of evaluating these factors external to competency has been devised. At present it is possible to do no more than call attention to the lack of correlation and attempt to explain the discrepancies in the most logical manner.
Conclusions.
(1) The psychologist should engage in the analysis and evaluation of the “ability” components of the college student’s competency rather than in the correlation of general intelligence tests with academic grades. (2) The abilities required for scholastic success, under the present methods of college instruction and grading, are not all of the abilities comprising individual competency. Hence the failure of test results to correlate with college grades. The better the general intelligence test, the smaller will be the correlation with academic standing.
(3) College grades will provide more satisfactory material for statistical treatment when each institution adopts a standard distribution of grades and provides for supervision by some administrative officer. (4) Tests for college students must be devised which place less dependence upon time measurement, which have a higher reliability coefficient, and which are of greater difficulty, than most of the tests now available.
(5) Motivation and environmental and economic conditions have not as yet yielded to quantitative treatment. Until they do, it will not be possible to predict with accuracy the success of a student in college or in any other field of endeavor.
(6) Test ratings such as those presented here should be made available to deans, faculty advisers, and committees dealing with scholastic deficiency. In many instances this information would be of value to the student, also, providing him with educational or vocational guidance.
(7) A “follow up” of the fifty students who have provided the material for this study will be published at some future date. (8) Only after many investigations are at hand with diagnoses carefully followed up over a period of years will psychological diagnosis and orthogenic guidance become as reliable for the normal individual as it is now for the subnormal.D
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