An Analytical Study of One Hundred Twenty Superior Children ==========================================

Author:

Alice M. Jones, Ph.D.

Clinical Psychologist and Organizer of Special Classes, Beaver County, Pennsylvania, Sometime Recorder to the Psychological Clinic, University of Pennsylvania

INTRODUCTION

Superiority is success demonstrated in some field of competition. The use of the word “superiority,” which is a comparative term, implies the correlative concept of inferiority, and the superiority-inferiority relation appears only as the demonstrable result of some competitive event.

If we wish to discover the superior members of a group, the simple way open to us is to set up some form of competition. Life, the school, all fields of social and economic production do this day by day. Indeed we are all constantly making observations as to the relative superiority and inferiority of those who cross our path. An artificially arranged competitive event, such as an athletic contest, or a debate, provides a more concrete and demonstrable basis for a judgment of relative superiority, than do the casual passing events of daily life. A psychological examination is such a pre-arranged competitive event, designed to discriminate the greatest possible number of factors which make toward success or failure in the long run.

If, as a result of this pre-arranged competition, the competitors are placed in rank order with reference to the preferred end of the competition, what is the measure of the superiority of each competitor? Obviously, it can be most adequately defined in terms of the number of inferiors. Correlatively, the index of inferiority is determined by the number of superiors. Herein lies the diagnostic value of the rankf order distribution of cases; it is possible to state in concrete terms the individual’s relative superiority.1 1 For these concepts regarding the essential nature o success, a methods of measurement, I am indebted to Doctor Witmer, un er w ose it tion and inspiration this study was conducted.

Suppose now, we wish to form a group whom we shall designate as relatively superior individuals. Upon what criterion shall we proceed? Some point in the series, above which the individual values shall be called superior, must be selected, and in the final analysis, the point of selection must be made on an entirely arbitrary basis. Historically, the median, or in some cases, the average, provided a favorite point for such arbitrary selection. Either the average or the median does divide the group into two divisions, one of which is superior to the other. It provides a convenient method for dividing the sheep from the goats, and in many cases no finer differentiation is needed. Your median individual, however, occupies the equivocal position of one to whom the number of inferiors, and the number of superiors are approximately (or exactly) equal. If we are concerned with superiority of an unusual degree, such a measure is not fine enough. Just where the lower criterion of superiority is to fall in the distribution, depends upon the fineness of the differentiation which is desired. Shall we call superior an individual who represents one of a group of twenty individuals, superior to eighty in every hundred ? This will give a finer differentiation that the median, it is true, but in this case the superior group will still be relatively large.

It was finally decided to consider superior for the purposes of this investigation any child who, on the basis of a Binet score, has a rank which places him in a group of one, superior to ninety-nine individuals, or, stated in terms of percentage, the upper one percentile. This, it will be seen, makes the ultimate criterion of selection one of frequency of occurrence. In the foregoing discussion I have confined myself strictly to demonstrated superiority in terms of rank order of proficiency. There is, however, another important phase to the definition of superiority. This can best be indicated by a question: Can an individual’s proficiency score at any given time be considered as an adequate index to his competency, or may we assume that his capability for production is always represented by a quantum somewhat in advance of what he actually produces ? If the latter situation is the true one, may not the discrepancy between capability and demonstrated productivity be greater in some individuals than in others? And further, may it not vary, from time to time, in the same individual? Can this ratio be expressed by any sort of fraction, and, if so, what would be the meaning of terms ? Doctor Witmer has approached this problem from the following point of view. He would use a new term, to express this relationship, calling it “Individual Efficiency.” t j ? ? j , ? Proficiency Measured Individual Efficiency = Estimated Competency One of these terms is a pure estimate. In spite of its lack of demonstrability, the concept of estimated competency, as well as individual efficiency, is of great value in the diagnosis of superiority. To illustrate the value of the competency estimate, let us suppose that, in the course of my study, I encountered two individuals, of precisely the same age, who give me identical proficiency scores on one or all the tests.

One of these children comes from a very fine home. She has had every cultural and environmental advantage, including travel, books, and a musical and artistic education. The other child, whose scores, you are to remember, are identical, comes from peasant, immigrant ancestry, has been subjected to complete cultural starvation in the home, and his only sources of education have been the street, the public library, and an overcrowded school in an inferior neighborhood. Must we not presuppose a vast measure of difference in the “individual efficiency” of these two children? Since their proficiency measures are the same, must we not infer that the latter child possesses a far greater degree of ultimate capability than the former? Is it, indeed, fair to judge these two children solely on the basis of any measure which can be ascertained as to their present status?

In making a final estimate of competency, then, one must take into consideration all those factors which tend to increase or decrease individual efficiency. One can even carry this question of individual efficiency further, finding cases where health and environmental factors are substantially the same, and where the present productivity in terms of proficiency measures is approximately equal, and still find evidence that the competency of one should be rated as superior to that of the other, because the motivation or “disposition” of one was such as to interfere with his best effort to succeed in the competition, or because a difference in poise has caused a variable response to the test situation, resulting disastrously for one and not for the other. The diagnosis of superiority as I view it, therefore, presents at least two separate phases. “Insofar as the diagnosis depends on exact measurement, it is a demonstrable diagnosis; insofar as it depends on analysis and valuation, it is an analytical diagnosis.” In order to satisfy those individuals who may insist that such a dual criterion is at best hypothetical and unscientific, the selection of cases for this group has been confined to such cases as are demonstrably superior, in terms of frequency of occurrence. In the light of the ideal that ALL DIAGNOSIS SHOULD BE VIEWED AS PROGNOSIS, the competency estimate may be viewed as the more adequate prediction of future achievement than any mere measure of present status can hope to give us.

There is another factor which comes into play as soon as one begins to make estimates regarding ultimate achievement level? a factor which has always acted as a “joker” in the competitive game of life. That; is a special gift, or talent, or congenital predisposition to take on skill in some one field. In a world which shows an increasing tendency toward specialization, the presence of a real talent almost assures a relatively high achievement level. However, it is conceivable that a given individual may possess a very marked gift in some special field, and, in most other abilities, fall consistently below the level of mediocrity. The probability that such an individual will succeed in any field outside the limited range of his specific ability is relatively slight.

Terman,2 and Root3 have included within their superior groups a number of individual cases of children with some marked special ability. After some thought, I have decided to diverge from this principle of selection, and have excluded from the group a few cases of talented children, because they failed to give evidence of superior intelligence, creative ability, or a relatively high discernment level. To call an individual relatively superior means that the number of competitive fields in which success is probable is fairly large, the larger the number the greater the relative superiority. Genius must be, it is true, founded upon some talent or group of talents, but talent is not the only significant factor. Among 2 Terman, L. M., A New Approach to the Study of Genius. Psychol. Bev. 29, 4, July 1922.

• Root, W. T., A Socio-Psychological Study of Supernorms. Psychol.

Monograph, 1921.

other essential accompaniments of genius are the following, a superior discernment level, superior intellectual capacity, superior motivation, which urges toward production, and an ability to is play origination of such profound effectiveness that it ten s to produce an entirely new pattern of perfection in the field in w ic it operates.

Because, however, general intellectual superiority is an item which must be considered with reference to genius, Dr lerman is in part justifiable when he speaks of the study of the superior child as “A New Approach to the Study of Genius.” As he points out in his excellent review of the stages which may be noted in the study of genius during the last century, biographical records are, unfortunately, very scanty in their references to the juvenile attainments of men who have been demonstrated, in the passing of time, to possess superior ability. Studies, such as ‘’ The I. Q. of Francis Galton in Childhood”4 will be of extreme value in attaining the actual attainment pattern of men of genius in early childhood. However, if Dr Terman wishes to approach the study of genius through genius in the making, by a study of superior children, he is over-optimistic if he expects to discover it in all cases where the I. Q. is 140. There are so many factors involved in the prediction or diagnosis of genius that I should hesitate to so name any child in my group, no matter how great his relative superiority as measured in terms of present status.

In summary, it will be remembered that the criteria of superiority are two: the first, the demonstrable diagnosis, concerned with exact measures on a battery of tests and frequency scores in terms of previous distributions; and second, the analytical diagnosis, comprising qualitative analysis and evaluation.

SELECTION OF TEST BATTERY, AND PROCEDURE

In view of the fact that contemporaneous investigations from this laboratory are being conducted at two of the major compe tency levels: the six5 and the fifteen6 year old level, and t at 4 Terman, L. M., The I. Q. of Francis Galton in Childhood. Amer. J. of Psychol., April 1917, pp. 209-215. 5 Easby-Grave, C. Psych. Clinic, 1924, 15, No. ? 9 Learning, R. E. Tests and Norms for Vocational Guidance at the Fifteen Year Old Level, Psychol. Clinic, 1922, 14, pp. 193-220. 24 TEE PSYCEOLOGICAL CLINIC standards are being compiled in the course of these investigations, in accordance with the Pennsylvania ideals and viewpoint, it was decided that for the purposes of this investigation, it would be well to use a test combining the major features of the two other investigations, in order to relate each competitor to one or the other, or both, of these major competency levels. The tests selected were, therefore, as follows:

Six Year Level School Grade Height, Weight Witmer Formboard (2 trials) Witmer Cylinders (2 trials) , Young Slot Maze A (2 trials) Memory Span?auditory, visual-vocal, reversed, learning, syllables in sentence. Binet Test (Terman Kevision, abbreviated scale) School Proficiency, reading and arithmetic. Fifteen Year Level School Grade Height, Weight Witmer Cylinders (2 trials) Dearborn Formboard (2 trials) Young Slot Maze CT (2 trials) Memory Span?auditory, visual-vocal, reversed, learning, syllables in sentence.

Binet Test (Terman Revision, abbreviated scale) Three Written Tests?(used in tests at fifteen-year-old level) Woodworth and Wells Hard Directions Test Monroe Silent Reading, for Grades 6, 7 and 8 Arithmetic (Modified Courtis, fundamental operation). The procedure on all tests given was standard for the investigations8 from this laboratory. In actual practice, it was soon found advisable to permit children at the six year level to progress up a ‘ This test was not used in the investigation at the fifteen year old level, but at the time when the present investigation was begun, standardization by a graduate student in the department was well under way. The work of standardization has been unfortunately interrupted; however, so that these results cannot be used in comparison with any norms. “Witmer Formboard?Young, H. H. The Witmer Formboard Psychol. Clinic, X, 1916, p. 93. Witmer Cylinders?Paschal, F. C. The Witmer Cylinder Test The Hershey Press (1918). scale of increasing difficulty, when the ability displayed in simpler problems indicated that there was some reasonable expectation of success.

The Analytic Diagnosis

Following the examination, each candidate was subjected to an informal interview with the examiner. Questions were asked concerning extra-curricular activities, music, dancing, athletics, clubs, dramatics, etc. Mechanical and constructive interests on the part of the boys, and sewing, embroidery and other hand work on the part of the girls, were also inquired into. The subject was further questioned regarding the kind of books preferred, the average time required per book, and the number of books consumed per week. Every subject was questioned especially regarding the facility of literary expression, and whether the idea of authorship as a profession had ever occurred to him or her as desirable. This information, plus mention of some occupation or profession, the attainment of which was the child’s concrete ambition, questions regarding play, relations with other children, favorite school subject, reaction to school and teachers, gave the examiner a fairly Dearborn Formboard?Learning, E. E. Tests and Norms for Vocational Guidance at the Fifteen Year Old

Level. Psychol. Clinic, 14, 1922, p. 193. Maze A?Young, H. H. Slot Maze A. Psychol. Clinic, 14, 1922, p. 73. Memory Span?Humpstone, H. J. Some Aspects of the Memory Span. Exper. Studies in Psych, and Ped., 1917. Maze C?Young, H. H. (Standardization under preparation ?not yet published).

Note: For purposes of analytic diagnosis, the examination was augmented from time to time with other tests which appeared to the examiner to have some definite diagnostic value. A test frequently used as an adaptation of the Maxfield Design Blocks. In order to get some supplementary information regarding a child’s imagery, two simple designs (the red square and the blue chevron) were used, a momentary exposure only being given. “Whether the result was success or failure in reproduction, the examiner frequently gained some valuable introspective material regarding the type of imagery which functioned. Similarly, the two Healy Pictorial Completion tests were frequently used, and in the case of high school boys, the Marvin Pyramid, a test, the quick solution of which appears to involve relatively superior imagery. definite picture of the child’s major interests and general social orientation. Language ability, superiority-inferiority sense, confidence, initiative and creative imagination were estimated on the basis of this interview, and a total personality rating was arrived at. When possible, supplementary information from parents and teachers was obtained regarding the child’s play life, his level of interests, and, more especially, his talents.

Following both examination and interview, an analytic diagnosis chart was checked, based upon the new schedule of personality items prepared for use at this Laboratory by Dr Witmer. Ratings were made on a five-point scale, 5 representing the highest, 3 the median, and 1, the lowest rating (see pp. 69-70).

PHYSIOLOGICAL DATA

There is accumulating in the general literature a large number of results which tend to show a direct relation between mental and physiological age. Perhaps the most insistent voice in this field is that of Bird Baldwin,9 who finds a universal tendency for acceleration in physiological growth to be accompanied by an acceleration in academic work and in mental age. Up until the period just preceding pubescence, this relative physiological maturation is to be determined in height and wreight indices. Studies dealing with the age of onset of pubescence show a tendency for those individuals whose maturation is early to show a relatively higher degree of success in academic subjects, and in the results of psychological examinations.10

My results tend to confirm this finding. In treating the results for the purpose of showing relative acceleration in growth, I have adopted the procedure of comparing the individual height and weight value with the median age level which it most nearly approaches. Each case is related to the nearest chronological age, and given credit for as many years’ acceleration as it is evident between the median for that age, and the level which it most nearly approximates. A gross treatment of this sort serves to bring out very 8 Baldwin, Bird T. Physical Growth and School Progress. U. S. Bureau Ed. Bui, 1914, No. 10 (and others).

10 A useful, reference here is Lutz, The Relation of Mental to Physical Growth, The Psych. Clinic, 1924, pp. 125-129. Lutz gives a rapid resume of the literature regarding the relation of pubescence onset to mental findings. clearly the general tendency of the figures. Following are the

figures: Height11 No. Years Acceleration No. Cases Per Cent Cases Total Per Cent 4 3 2.5 2.5 3 10 8.3 10.8 2 28 23.3 34.1 1 54 45 79.1 Median for age 22 18.3 97.4 One year retarded 3 2.5 100 Weight -No. iears Acceleration No. Cases Per Cent Cases Total Per Cent 5 1 0.8 0.8 4 6 5.0 5.8 3 10 8.3 14.1 2 38 31.6 45.7 1 40 33.3 79 Median for age 22 18.3 97.3 One year retarded 2 1.6 98.9 Off the chart (too young) 1 0.8 100

It will be seen from a quick inspection of these tables that 79 per cent of the cases are one year or more accelerated in height, and 79 per cent are one or more years in excess of the median for their age in weight. A maximum acceleration of four years in height, and five years in weight is reported. It is obvious that the group, as a group, is marked by excessive physiological as well as mental growth. The few cases in the group who are at the twelve to fourteen year level, are, without exception, post-pubescent, which would be expected from the findings of Lutz, and his predecessors. There is a chronological age limit above which marked precocity of physical development does not figure. If mental maturation is a direct function of the physical growth process (and the evidence is rather convincing) then after physical maturity?the period of post-adolescent stability?has been reached, one would expect individuals of accelerated mental growth YEAR BY YEAR TO APPROACH MORE NEARLY THE MEDIAN INTELLECTUAL LEVEL FOR THEIR AGES. I am convinced that this is what actually does happen in many cases, and that we may thereby 11 Height and Weight measures have been made in cm. and kg., respectively. The norms used for comparative purposes were those of Hastings. readily account for the frequent regression to the norm which is seen in cases of what looks like unusual childhood promise. In the light of this hypothesis, it becomes at best precarious to make any prediction about the ultimate achievement level in cases where unusual mental development appears in combination with a high maturation index, until the individual has reached the point of post-adolescent physiological stability.

NATIONALITY, CULTURAL AND ECONOMIC FACTORS CHARACTERISTIC OF GROUP

Nationality

In polyglot ancestry, the members of this group are typically American. In some few cases the examiner inquired into the race pattern disclosed by grandparents, but two or three illustrative cases will show the futility of trying to make any classification of such data.

196 M Paternal grandparents Scotch-Irish and Pennsylvania Dutch. Maternal grandparents Swiss and “American.” 121 M Paternal grandparents Dutch. Maternal grandparents Scotch and Irish. 57 M Paternal grandparents German and Scotch-Irish. Maternal grandparents “American.’’ In view of the difficulty of obtaining this data in some cases, the attempt to carry out the plan of getting such detailed information was abandoned. The children were classified according to the birthplace of the parents. If a child is defined as “Mixed American” it means merely that both parents were born in this country. Classification is as follows: Per Cent Cases Mixed American 59.2 100 per cent American 5.8 (Four generations or more on 65.0 per cent American both sides born in America) Jewish 30.0 German paternity 1.6 English paternity .8 Dutch paternity .8 Italian paternity .8 French Canadian paternity .8 AN ANALYTICAL STUDY 29 The disproportionately large percentage of Jewish cases appears to corroborate the findings of other investigators at the superior level.12- 13 The nationality factor appear to the examiner to be of relatively less significance in its effect upon the results of the group than certain other factors, the chief of which are the cultural and economic status of the home. Economic Status of the Home Following the precedent of Terman,14 in making a classification of the economic status of the fathers, I used the Taussig15 five-point scale of rating occupations of the fathers. Using this classification, the occupations of fathers as reported can be reported for this group as follows: Per Cent Cases Total Cases Eank 5 56 56 Rank 4 32 89 Eank 3 8 97 Eank 2 2 99 Eank 1 1 100

If we compare these percentages with those of any unselected group, it becomes obvious that, from the point of view of economic status alone, we| are dealing with a highly selected group. Given this much information only we are able to argue a high degree of relative superiority among the fathers of these children. If superiority is to be defined in terms of success in competition, a group of fathers, over 50 per cent of whom fall into class 5 on an economic scale, and 89 per cent into class 4 or better, have unquestionably shown a high degree of success in competitive society. Should we not be led to expect a somewhat greater probability of success, or superiority, in the children of such parents?

The few cases at the lower end of the scale perhaps deserve some special mention here. 45M is a very talented boy who was reported as Joseph by the author, in a group of children especially 13 Terman, L. M. A New Approach to the Study of Genius, Psychol. Review, July, 1922, p. 314.

u Eoot, W. T. A Socio-Psychological Study of Supernorms, Psychol. Monograph, 1921, p. 193. “Terman, op. cit. p. 313. 15 Taussig, F. W. Principles of Economics. The Macmillan Co., 1921. 141-144.

gifted in music.16 His parents are Italian born, his father a day laborer. Joseph is twelve years old, however, and unusual interest has been accorded him throughout his school career. The school has therefore been able, in some measure, to overcome the initial economic and cultural handicap, by suggesting and encouraging reading. The child has therefore, in a sense, been isolated from the general family level, and has, by this time, been able in some sense to overcome the initial handicaps. His scores, moreover, are not among the highest for his age reported in the superior group. His I. Q. of 141.2, although admitting him to the group, is found just above the minimum requirement at the fourteen year old age level, into which level he falls.

The cases which fall into Rank 2, on the basis of economic classification can also be explained in some measure. 97F is a little girl whose father, although a high school graduate, has not yet “found himself,” vocationally speaking, and who is acting temporarily as a private chauffeur. 80M has for a father a. foreignborn Jew. It was difficult to get explanations of his present occupation, which is that of a street-railway conductor. This child, however, falls decidedly below the median for the superior group on the I. Q. 25F is an extremely bright child of almost twelve years?reported in the Clinic for May-June, 1923, as Margaret. She has always been singled out by her teachers for special attention, and has, therefore, been able to overcome what appears to be a marked cultural and economic handicap. As the individual approaches adult life, it is probable that the handicap of an unfortunate home environment can be more and more completely overcome by the exercise of initiative and intelligence. It is the younger children who are most dependent upon the home for what it can give in the direction of creature comfort and cultural inspiration.

Cultural Status of the Home

It is, of course, sound economic reasoning to expect that in a group of cases which are found at the upper economic levels of society, we shall find a superior cultural status. However, in order to be doubly sure of the approximate cultural status of the homes from which these children come, information was gathered concerning the educational background of the parents. In some eases, examined in schools, it proved impossible to get this data from the 19Psychological Clinic. January, 1924 (Vol. 15), p. 130-133 (Joseph) children. In general, the examiner was able to obtain more information about the fathers than about the mothers. On cases examined in the clinic, however, a careful record was kept. Enough cases were reported to make the tendency very clear.

TABLE TO SHOW EDUCATIONAL STATUS OF PARENTS Father Mother Both College Graduate 55 24 21 High School Only 25 32 18 Normal School 16 Less than High School 25 19 8 Correspondence Course (Chemistry) 1 Musical Education (No High School) …. 2 1 Unreported 12 28 On the criterion of the educational background of the parents, this group appears to be even more highly selected than is evident from the figures on economic classification. A group of whicfy fifty per cent of the fathers are college graduates, would seem even more highly selected than one in which fifty per cent could be rated 5 on an economic scale. It thus becomes evident that these children as a group are the product of a highly favored environment, as well as of a relatively selective heredity. What would have been the showing of the same children, could we presuppose an absence of these favorable factors, becomes a matter of mere speculation. One is led to suspect the advisability of evolving an entirely new and different series of tests?one in which neither excess language development, efficiency in the use of the 3 R’s, nor superior social orientation, will have any appreciable influence on the results. However, in view of the fact that these very characteristics are so greatly preferred among children, and that these are the assets which tend to make them successful in the intellectual competitions of childhood, perhaps in ignoring them in our search for superior children, we should defeat our own end.

A better solution of the problem would be a recognition of the fact that superior social and cultural status in parents tends toward intellectual superiority on the part of the children, and that therefore a sliding rather than an absolute standard of selection should be imposed, lowering the standard of admission to the group in cases of inferior environmental status, where the child gives evidence of possessing superior competency.

RELATIVE DEGREE OF ACCELERATION IN SCHOOL GRADE “When we consider the exceptional degree of acceleration in mental age which is characteristic of this group as a whole, we should expect to find that these children would be relatively far advanced in school. Investigation of the school status of these children gives results as follows: Accelerated in School Grade 2 years ? 6 cases or 5 per cent 1 year ? 29 cases or 32.5 per cent School Age Median for Chronological Age 60 cases or 50 per cent Retarded in School Grade 2 years ? 1 case or .8 per cent 1 year ? 14 cases or 11.6 per cent No child in the group was found to be more than two years accelerated in school age, and no child was more than two years retarded.

Supplementary investigation of those records which show retardation in school work shows the facts to be as following: Two years retarded, case No. 89M, aged ten year, three months. This boy is ten years of age, and up until this year he has been taught in a haphazard fashion by his mother, but has never been in school. His father is a civil and mining engineer, and the family has moved from place to place so frequently as to make it impractical to place the boy in school. He was placed this year provisionally in 3B, and as he was examined early in the fall, was still in that grade.

Cases which show one year’s retardation are analyzable as follows:

Children of six years not yet in school?? cases. Lost all, or most of a year because of illness?3 cases. In all the other cases the birthday falls at such a time that the children entered school late in the seventh year, instead of at six years. One child was kept out of school until seven years, and her parents will not allow the school to give her incidental promotion in order to make up the grade so lost. Not one of these children has ever been “left down” in the usual sense of the word. In view of the fact that fifty per cent of the cases show no acceleration in school grade, and that in most cases they are receivAN ANALYTICAL STUDY 33 ing no unusual attention from the viewpoint of adaptation of curriculum, it would seem that the schools, as a whole, are neglecting a problem of great importance, in their failure to provide exceptional facilities for the education of the children who fall into this group.

EESULTS

General Method of Treatment

In view of the wide chronological age spread, and the relatively few values occurring at each age interval, all cases, regardless of age or sex, were thrown into straight rank order distribution. The distributions were made upon a nonpreferential basis, from the least to the highest score, regardless of the evaluation or interpretation of the data. Inspection of the resulting distributions indicated that in general such a treatment of the results was satisfactory, since chronological age appears to be a far from significant factor m success in many of these tests. These distributions are on file in the Laboratory of Psychology, and will be augmented by succeeding investigations. They are in such form that they can be subjected to any desired statistical treatment. From the distribution, tables were made up giving decile limits, maximum, minimum, median, and mode. In accordance with the viewpoint of this Laboratory toward the essential nature of “norms,” the mode reported is not the usual frequency mode, but the median sixty per cent range.

Percentage tables were also prepared to show the number and percentage of cases within a certain range of scores. Time scores are reported in periods of ten seconds’ range on some tests, and fifty seconds’ range on others, according to the spread indicated by the distribution. Scores other than time are reported in periods adequate for each particular test. In the percentage tables, the last figure indicates the total percentage of individuals securing given score or better. The tables are accumulative, in both the number of cases, and in percentage, from the least to the greatest score. Results and discussion of individual tests follow:

BINET TEST

The results on the Binet Test are reported under five major captions: Chronological Age, Mental Age, Basal Age, Intelligence Quotient and Vocabulary.

1. Chronological Age

The range in chronological age within the group is from three years, eleven months to fourteen years, nine months. From the point of view of chronological age, therefore, it will be seen that this represents a most heterogeneous group. The modal chronological age (comprising the sixty per cent range) is from 7-3 to 11-5. The group is heavily weighted at the nine and ten year level, which makes the median age 9-9. With so wide a variation, however, the median is of little value, unless used for comparing this group with some other. The overweighting of the group toward the nine and ten year old level is accounted for largely by the fact that the examiner went through an accelerated class at this particular age level, and as the school was in a very selective neighborhood, much excellent material was recruited from the one class. It also appears to the examiner that the years from eight to ten offer the greatest possibility for a high range in I. Q. for the school child. At six years, there is a very definite upper limit imposed by a lack of efficiency in the three R’s. Between six and ten a superior child may take on increments in efficiency in school work so rapidly as to take him entirely out of the class of his associates in the grades, and thus open up almost infinite I. Q. possibilities.

That the chronological age does not run higher is the result of the limitation of the upper ranges of the Binet Series, which makes it imposible for a fifteen or sixteen year old child to obtain a strikingly high I. Q. There are five cases above the twelve year level which were included in the group on the basis of a maximum I. Q., rather than one which is above the lower criterion for admission.

2. Mental Age

Beginning with a minimum mental age of 6-0, the range in this group runs up to the maximum possible on the Terman Revision, or 19-6. The median mental age is 15-7? and the sixty per cent median range is from 11-4 to 18-0.

The disparity between the chronological and the mental ages in this group is, of course, striking. The general tendency is shown by the median, where with a median chronological age of 9-9, we find a median mental age of 15-7|. Inspection of any other point in the decile distribution, however, shows just as great a difference, and in individual cases we find a mental age almost double the chronological.

I have a word of warning about the literal interpretation of the words mental age. It has for some time been recognized that there is a fallacy in applying the concept of mental age to an inferior child, in that such children cannot be favorably compared with the normal child of any age. Furthermore, the point has been stressed that the mental age of a post-adolescent defective individual is in no sense that of a younger child who is pre-pubescent, in that actual physical maturation and the experience which years of living bring, invalidate a comparison between the mentality of the two individuals.

However, most persons have accepted with relatively little question the assertion that a child, let us say, of eight years, may have a mental age of sixteen years or thereabouts. This notion I believe to be entirely erroneous. Between the pre-adolescent individual and the post-adolescent, there is a great gulf fixed. The fact that an eight-year-old child is able to pass certain tests designed for a much higher age level, does not, in my opinion, warrant the supposition that he has attained to the complexity and maturity of mind which is the natural outcome of physiological maturity and experience.

In almost every case which I have presented, I should be willing to say that the mental age score obtained, taken alone, would give a very much exaggerated picture of the child’s relative intellectual maturity. In other words, an eight year old child is not, and cannot be conceived of as being, mentally sixteen; his entire intellectual and behavior pattern differs from that of the older individual in certain very significant although rather elusive ways. One of these differences is unquestionably a lack of maturity and complexity of response.

On the other hand, I have reported certain cases where postadolescent stability has been reached at an early age. Case 25F is an excellent illustration of this point. At 11-11 she has the physiological maturity of a girl of sixteen. Her mental age rating is 17-10, and in this case, the mental age does not appear too high to give a satisfactory index of her relative maturity of intellectual organization. Several other high school children, whose chronological age is below fourteen, but who have reached the age of post-pubescent stability, impressed the examiner as showing a maturity of intel36 TEE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC lectual organization which was adequately expressed in terms of the mental age score.

However, I wish to re-emphasize the statement that in my opinion a mere statement of mental age would tend to give a distorted picture of the intellectual level of these children. That these young children are able to pass tests at the upper level age must be the result of some special abilities rather than the general intellectual maturity which success with such tests pre-supposes. Like the defective, the superior child, qualitatively speaking, does not approximate the normal child of any age. He is a creature of different organization from the average individual of the level represented by his chronological age on the one hand, and his mental age, on the other hand. The concept of mental age, literally speaking, appears therefore not only inadequate, but erroneous, although for purposes of general comparison it is, of course, a useful type of measure.

3. Basal Age

It has been felt by some investigators at this Laboratory that the basal age level might be expected to give a relatively better picture of the actual intellectual level at which an individual is functioning than does the mental age. A distribution of basal ages was therefore made, and the significant results are reported in the table on the Binet Test. Throughout the distribution, the basal age falls considerably below the mental age, which is to be expected. The median basal age level is twelve years, as contrasted with a median mental age level of 15-71^. On the whole, I do not feel that this distribution of basal ages gives results which are of much diagnostic significance. The only respect in which I feel that the basal age level tends more nearly, on the whole, to approximate the actual intellectual level of these children, is insofar as it is somewhat lower than the mental age level, which I definitely consider too high. In individual cases I do not see any particular significance in the relation between the basal age level, and the actual operating level of the individual. In a very few cases, where the tests passed scatter through the folder, as a result of certain specific abilities (memory span in particular) the basal age level does attain more significance than that of the mental age, but these cases are the exception rather than the rule.

4. Intelligence Quotient

It will be seen from inspection of the tables that two cases, or 1.6 per cent scored I. Q.’s above 190, 8.3 per cent above 180, 17.5 per cent above 170, 31.6 per cent above 160, 71.6 per cent above 150, and 95.7 per cent above 140. Five cases are included within the group, where the I. Q. ranges between 130 and 140, but where the I. Q. obtained is the highest possible, because of the upper limit imposed by chronological age.

In view of the fact that the I. Q. was made the ultimate criterion of selection for the members of this group, I feel it well to justify the choice of this particular test. The justification rests in general upon two factors. The first of these is the very excellent precedent set by other investigators in the same field, notably those who have been inspired by the viewpoint of Terman. By the use of a criterion comparable to that of other workers, these results will be made a more acceptable contribution to those which are rapidly accumulating in the general literature. The second and more potent reason for the selection of this test rathei4 than some other test, or tests, within the battery, lies in the nature of the test itself, in that it is more comprehensive. Individual tests within the Binet serve to give indices of memory span, vocabulary, judgment, and general social orientation, all of which are of value in making a qualitative as well as a quantitative judgment of the child. For this reason it is preferable to other tests, in the solution of which some few specific abilities are involved.

It will be remembered that the quantitative lower criterion of admission to the group was that of the upper one percentile, as found in the distributions of the other two major investigations from this Laboratory. The actual figures here are 147 at the sixyear level, and 140 at the fifteen-year level. “With a very few exceptions, I am confident that the possession of an I. Q. above these lower limits gives a positive indication of superiority. However, because of the influence of social, cultural and general environmental factors on success in the Binet Test, it is altogether probable that the elimination of certain cases upon this arbitrary basis excluded some individuals from the group, when a competency estimate would make them entirely satisfactory candidates. On the other hand, for the same reasons, some individuals have been included in the group for whom I should hesitate to predict an ulti38 TEE PSY GEOLOGICAL C LI NIG mately high achievement level, because of certain very favorable environmental factors which have tended to raise the I. Q. level. However, with these very few exceptions, the criterion proved a fairly satisfactory one.

It will be remembered that 31.6 per cent of this group secured an I. Q. of 160 or better. The highest figure appearing in the distributions at the six and fifteen-year-old level is 160, secured by a child at the six-year level. At this level five hundred cases are reported. The frequency index of a child with an I. Q. of 160, at the six-year level, therefore, is that of one in five hundred. From that point up, the frequency index becomes smaller and smaller. What should be the estimated frequency of occurrence of cases where the I. Q. is 190, or 200 ? In dealing with this highly selected group, in which only cases were referred for examination where a diagnosis of superiority had already been made (by parents, teachers, physicians or friends) I encountered only two cases with an I. Q. of 190 or better, and no case above 200. There are comparatively few such cases reported in the literature. In terms of frequency, therefore, these children must represent one in several thousand?just how small the frequency index would be is still a matter of estimate. However, it is clear that the smaller the frequency index the greater the relative superiority. Frequency is the ultimate criterion.

22. Vocabulary

Vocabulary is one of the tests in which the most general and striking superiority is demonstrated by this group. For the most part, the vocabulary of these children approximates a level almost as far in, advance of their chronological age norms as the mental age itself. Distribution in terms of number of years’ excess vocabulary above age norms is as follows: No. Years Above C. A. No. Cases Per Cent Total

9 1 0.8 8 1 1.6 7 3 4.1 6 5 8.2 5 19 24.0 4 31 49.8 3 25 70.6 2 17 84.7 1 10 93.0 0 8 100.0

Those cases which show no acceleration whatever in “vocabulary age” are, with one exception, below four years of age. In the case of such young children, of course, the Binet vocabulary list is of little value. No child in the group is retarded with reference to vocabulary. Twenty-four per cent show an acceleration of five years or more, 50 per cent an acceleration of four years or more, seventy per cent an acceleration of three years or more, eighty-five per cent an acceleration of two years or more.

With a median chronological age of 9-9, the median vocabulary score is 52, which represents a median acceleration of four years plus. The median sixty per cent range for the group is from a score of 36 (ten-year level) to a score of 61 (average adult level). The chronological age median range is from 7-3 to 11-5. From whatever point of view we look at the vocabulary distribution, it becomes obvious that this group as a whole possesses a tremendous acceleration in vocabulary, or in other words, in language development. These vocabulary findings are extremely significant. The development of intellectual complexity proceeds, in general, hand in hand with the development of increasing complexity in the use of language. From many points of view there is no more satisfactory test for general intellectual attainment than some modification of a vocabulary test. That this is generally accepted is witnessed by the inclusion of definition tests in almost all those so-called intelligence tests which involve the use of language. The definition level at which a given individual functions is an excellent index of his relative intellectual complexity. Terman makes use of this concept in his inclusion of two different levels of definition with younger children, namely, definition in terms of use, and definition other than use. Starting with the simple definition in terms of use, we may discover a scale of increasing complexity of definition, culminating in definition as conceived by the philosopher. The qualitative definition type of the superior child differs from that of the average child of his age, in that it approaches one of the higher levels of complexity. Not only does the superior child define more words, his very language increment, proceeding hand in hand as it does with conceptual complexity, enables him to give better definitions of those words which he does define. There are eight and nine year old children in this group whose “sense of definition” exceeds that of the average college student. Explanation of the vocabulary increment in this group comes largely in terms of environmental factors. Since the taking on of language is an imitative function, it is to be expected that the vocabulary of the pre-school child will give a fairly satisfactory mirror of his home environment. Since the majority of these children come from homes where the cultural status is very high, we may reasonably expect a relative vocabulary acceleration. For the school child a secondary source of vocabulary development is found in the formal educational processes which impinge upon him. Ultimately, after he had acquired the use of reading as a tool, the increment of vocabulary is almost directly proportional to the number and type of books “consumed.” That this latter factor is one of extreme significance is indicated by the fact that the relative discrepancy between chronological age and vocabulary age decreases as we approach the pre-reading level. Even the question of reading, however, is ultimately related to the cultural status of the home, since the higher that status the greater the incentive and opportunity for reading, and the more wisely selected the reading list. Because of the close relation between social and environmental factors and vocabulary development, it may be argued that such a test is “unfair” to the child who comes from an inferior social level. In the final analysis, however, although we may “explain away” a relatively poor vocabulary score in terms of lack of opportunity, since the increase of intellectual complexity and the development of language are so intrinsically inter-related, we must admit that an individual of inferior vocabulary fails to attain to the intellectual level of one whose vocabulary is superior.

MEMORY SPAN

Memory span results are reported in general under five captions, comprising the Auditory, Visual, Reversed, Learning and Sentence Spans.

I. Auditory Memory Span Inspection of the tables for auditory memory span shows a minimum repetition of five digits and a maximum of 10 digits, which was the highest series presented. The median is clearly 8, with three entire deciles. Eight and three-tenths per cent of the cases give 10; 21.6 per cent give 9 or more; 71.4 per cent, 8 or more. The median range (sixty per cent mode) is 7 to 9. The median for this group is therefore the same as that for the high school groups at the fifteen year old level, although the median chronological age is 9-9.

A quick survey of the minimum chronological age at which each of the memory span values occurs may be of interest here. The youngest child to obtain a score of 10 was 121M, aged 9-5; 9 was scored by 161F, aged 7-9; 8 by 78M, aged 5-7; 7 by 77F, aged 4-2; 6 by 195M, aged 3-11; 5 by 2F, aged 3-5. The distribution shows, however, a marked over-lapping in the relation of chronological age and auditory memory span, so that what appears here as a fairly symmetrical ratio is actually marked by considerable scattering in age scores.

That the distribution shows a consistently high auditory memory span in relation to chronological age is obvious from the distribution of significant results. II. Visual Memory Span There is in general a close correspondence between the results for auditory and for the visual-vocal presentation of digits in series. The minimum result here is 0, for the reason that six of the children had not been taught to read the numbers. Above zero, the minimum score obtained was 5. The maximum is again 10, with 12.5 per cent of the cases. The median is 8, and the 60 per cent modal range is from 7 to 9. Twelve and five-tenths per cent give 10, 36.6 per cent 9 or better, 74.1 per cent 8 or better, 85 per cent 7 or better, 89 per cent 6 or better, and 96.6 per cent exceed 5. The median again is 8, which is that of the high school group. The youngest child to obtain a score of 10 was 104M, aged 8-10, 9 was obtained by 161F, aged 7-9; 8 by 26F, aged 6-4; 7 by 163M, aged 7-11 ? 6 by 85F, aged 4-11, and 5 by 195M, aged 3-11. Procedure in giving the visual span to the superior child is complicated by the exceedingly rapid apprehension given by these children to the series presented. It is almost impossible to have the child “follow the pencil” and proceed slowly. His eyes move rapidly over the entire series two or three times while the voice is pronouncing the digits at the required rate. No matter how quickly the card is removed, the glance slips back to the beginning of the series while the last digit is being pronounced. This form of “beating the game” was frequently obvious to the examiner, but after giving the standard directions, the tendency was ignored, in that it seems a justifiable display of intelligence.

3. The Learning Span

The learning span, or the number of repetitions required to learn a series longer by one digit than the memory span, was tested on all cases whose span as tested was less than 10. Results are reported in the usual table. Cases giving a span of 10 (both visual and auditory) five per cent. On cases where either span was 10, the learning span was tried on the other series. In all other cases, the learning span as reported refers to the Auditory presentation. The minimum learning span reported is 2, the maximum reported is a failure after 10 repetitions. Three is the median, and the sixty per cent modal range is 2-5. Thirty-nine per cent of the cases require two repetitions only, sixty-three percent require three repetitions, or less, seventy-five per cent succeed with four repetitions. The remainder of the distribution scatters, with five cases that failed to raise the span on ten trials. “With one exception the cases who failed to raise the span on ten repetitions are six years old or less. In the other exception, a girl of 11-2, the emotional factor was paramount, and after three or four failures, her series became “wild.”

The group tendency, is, as would be anticipated, toward a relatively low number of repetitions. This factor, coupled with an exceptionally large memory span as a foundation, serves as an adequate indication of the high degree of educability, or, in the Witmer terminology, ” perf ectability ” characteristic of the group.

4. The Reversed Span

The distribution for the reversed span shows an even wider divergence from the age norms than that for the forward spans. The minimum span is, of course, 0 (two cases, both four years). The modal 60 per cent range is from four to seven, the median 6, and the maximum 7, with three deciles. In percentages, 35.8 per cent give 7, 59.1 per cent give 6 or better, 72.5 per cent give 5 or better, 86.6 per cent give 4 or better, and 97.5 per cent give 3 or better. The median chronological age being 9-9, the median reversed span as reported by Terman should be 4. Six, it will be remembered, is scored at the average adult level. The youngest child to give a reversed span of 7 was 184F, aged 8-8. Six was scored by 156F, aged 7-9; 5 by 58M, aged 7-2; 4 by 85F, aged 4-11; 3 by 195M, aged 3-11.

That the results obtained with the reverse span are uniformly in excess of the age norms would, in the opinion of some writers, be considered of even greater significance than the acceleration in the forward spans. Starr,17 in her study of the diagnostic value ?f the memory span reports that “considered alone, the reverse span has higher diagnostic value than the forward span, as shown by its uni-modal distribution of results, and the mutual exclusiveness of the groups formed thereby.” She further states that “in general, mental development varies directly as the ratio of the reverse span to the forward span.” Unquestionably the reversed digit span presents a very much more difficult problem than the forward span, and involves a greater complexity of response. (The Possible exception to this statement is found in the case of the individual who is able to obtain a clear visual image of the series, and then read the number in reverse sequence.) In view of the fact that the problem is more complex, success is unquestionably more significant. The problem of the significance of failure, or inferior score in the test need not concern us here.

A word as to the method of recall characteristic of the superior group on this test, might be of interest. There is evident a much greater caution in response than with the average child. Instead ?f making a quick “try” at the series, the child in this group, at least after an initial failure, tends to react slowly, forming a complete integration, and in many cases, it is evident by the pause between digits as they are repeated, that the child is “running up the series” to the digit required. If a very quick reaction is given, questioning usually reveals the presence of superior visual imagery. The examiner regrets that she did not begin by permitting an upper limit of 10 digits in this test, instead of 7, as she is convinced that in many cases the reversed span might have been even higher than that standardized at the Superior Adult Level.

” Starr, A. S. The Diagnostic Value of the Audito-Vocal Digit Memory Span. Psychological Clinic, 1923, 14, p. 83 V. The Sentence Span By the sentence span is indicated the number of syllables in a sentence which can be repeated by the subject after a single auditory presentation. In this group, the number of syllables repeated distributes from a minimum of 13, to a maximum of 35. The modal sixty per cent range is 22-29, the median is 26. Twentyfour per cent of the cases give 30 or better, ninety-one per cent give 20 or better.

In interpreting the significance of these results, I am handicapped by a lack of norms. Terman places twenty-eight syllables at the average adult level, and drops to twenty to twenty-two syllables at the ten year level. The median, or twenty-six syllables, in this investigation, would therefore fall between these two levels, and more nearly approximate the former. With a median chronological age of 9-9, these findings would indicate a degree of acceleration comparable to that found with the other spans. The Significance of Memory Span

Memory span, as a measure of an individual’s span of apprehension lies at the basis of all intellection. There is some disagreement in the literature as to what the memory span test actually tests. Humpstone18 has defined the memory span as ‘’the ability to grasp and associate a number of discrete units of perception in a definite order.” Whatever may be the actual analytic elements involved in the tests, it is generally recognized that it strikes at a process which is absolutely fundamental to all intellectual organization. Given an operative memory span of only one, organization of any kind is obviously impossible, and with two or three only, we can have but the simplest kind of intellection. With the increase of the operative memory span comes the possibility of increasing complexity of intellectual organization, and the higher the operative memory span, the greater the possibility of intellectual attainment. It is to be noted that I have used the words “operative span,” since there is the well-known span of echolalia, which from the point of view of intellect possesses no significance, and there is also the increase of repetitive span which accompanies increased facility in 18 Humpstone, H. J. Some Aspects of the Memory Span Test. The Psychol. Clinic Press, Philadelphia, 1917. the use of language. With intelligent subjects, grouping and other devices supplement the true operative span.

In order to give as complete a test as possible of memory span and avoid, by checking, the possibility of gaining an entirely false impression of the individual’s true span, the five forms of the test already discussed were used. Inspection of the results show that for all forms of the test, the results for this group show acceleration as compared with the age norms. The conclusion appears inevitable that the operative span of this group as a whole is very high. It is entirely possible that therein lies the basis for the increased intellectual complexity by which the group is characterized. The educational significance of this set of results is clear. The superior child is able to acquire, hold and organize knowledge, in a fashion entirely foreign to his age norms. He can handle not ?uly more material, but more complex material, than his average companions. At a single presentation, he can apprehend more than can his slower comrades upon an increasing number of repetitions. Fifty per cent of this group is not accelerated in school grade, and has been subjected to no unusual advantages in the form of adaptation of curriculum. Year by year the schools devote a larger budget to the special classes for backward children. What would be the relative return of equivalent expenditure in the interest of the superior child? This question is being raised in the literature with, increasing urgency, but in spite of the excellent efforts in laany communities, progress in this direction is slow. I THE PERFORMANCE TESTS

Discussion of the individual performance tests follows: The Witmer Formboard In order to economize in the matter of time, the Witmer Formhoard was given only to cases at the six year level. An arbitrary upper limit to this age level was set at eight years and five months.* Statistical results here are of comparatively little significance, because of the small number of cases (32). * Doctor Witmer in the investigations at the Psychological Laboratory of the University of Pennsylvania has defined three major age levels. (1) the six year level (age range 3 yrs. 6 mos. to 8 yrs. 5 mos.), (2) the fourteen year level (age range 11 yrs. 6 mos. to 16 yrs. 5 mos.), and third, an intermediate level, lying between these two. On the first trial, all but three cases complete the test within a minute; the maximum time required is 197 seconds, and there are no failures. The minimum time is 21 seconds, scored by 20M, aged 5-9. In this distribution, as in the other performance tests, the factor of chronological age appears of relatively little significance, except as we approach the maximum time scores. The minimum score is secured by a five year old child, the median score by an eight year old, and the maximum by a four year old, in a group where the chronological age range is from 3-11 to 8-5. Doctor Young19 in his recent presentation of Formboard standards, reports no cases under four years of age. His results are reported in half-yearly periods, which makes it impracticable to compare with results so finely graded from the point of view of age, a set where the age spread is so great. However, a rough comparison can be made. At the 6-0 interval, the 50 per cent point in his distribution is reached at 50 seconds for boys, and at 52 seconds for girls. The median reported for this group is 35 seconds, which gives some indication of acceleration. Young offers no distribution of the second trials.

Dr Easby-Grave, in her investigation at the six year old level, finds a median first trial time of 45 seconds, which is considerably poorer than the median time for this group. She finds 2.6 per cent failure on the first trial with first grade children. In this group I report no failures.

For the second trial, her distribution shows a median score of 35 seconds, as against 26 seconds for this group. It is quite clear from the general tendency of the results that in this test, the scattered “six year old level” group of superior children makes a consistently better showing than does the more homogeneous first grade group.

The Witmer Cylinders

The significant results in the first trial of the Witmer Cylinders are as follows: minimum 27 seconds, maximum failure, median 80 seconds, and 60 per cent range 56-134. Eight-tenths per cent succeed in less than 30 seconds, 1.6 per cent in less than 40 seconds, 26.6 per cent in less than a minute, 74.1 per cent in less than two minutes, 90 per cent in less than three minutes. Four cases, or 3.3 per cent, fail the test.

? Young, H. H. The Witmer Formboard. Psychol. Clinic, 1923, 14, 85-91. The failures fall, with one exception, below 4-11 in chronological age. 86F, aged 8-1, scored a technical failure, by replacing all the blocks as quickly as possible without regard to the problem. Her second trial was satisfactory. No cases at six years failed, although the expectation is 50 per cent failure. The youngest child to complete the test within 300 seconds was 21F, aged 3-11. The youngest child to succeed within 180 seconds was 30F, aged 4-6. The best time score was made by 185M, aged 9-6. Some sex difference is apparent in the results of this test in favor of the boys. Above the median we find 58.8 per cent of the boys, as against 38.4 per cent of the girls. Seventy-five per cent ?f the highest decile are boys. The failures include three girls but only one boy.

The median first trial time, 82 seconds, fails to compare favorably with the median at the high school level. The significant results in the second trial are as follows: minimum 25 seconds, median 59 seconds, and. 60 per cent range 47-91. There are three failures on the second trial. There is a general improvement in time on this trial, 1.8 per cent succeeding in less than 40 seconds, 52.5 per cent in less than a minute, 88.3 per cent in less than two minutes, 90 per cent in less than three minutes. The median value still fails to compare favorably with that of the High School group. The sex difference is still apparent on the second trial. Above the median value we find 54.4 per cent of the boys, and 44.4 per cent of the girls. Although the highest decile shows no significant difference in the number of cases of each sex, the upper quintile shows a distribution of 25 per cent of the boys, as against 13 per cent of the girls.

Mere success on the Cylinders, above the six year level,, is of little diagnostic value. The important considerations for diagnosis are (1) the relative position of the time score in the percentile distribution for age, and (2) the qualitative manner of attack. The latter question is by far the most important in making a diagnosis of superiority. This test, and the Dearborn Formboard C, are the two most valuable single performance tests, from the point of view of the analytic diagnosis, in the battery under discussion, certainly above the four year level, where the Witmer formboard is of great value.

The Witmer Cylinder Test is admirably adapted to show fineness of analytic discrimination within a certain range of material where the general form is constant, but the variations appear in the single factor of size (height and diameter). In addition, it provides an opportunity for the integration of the problem as a whole, and the discovery of the general principles of construction, in a sense somewhat unusual in the formboard series. The superior child is quick to grasp the essential nature of the problem. The examiner was frequently startled at the amazingly small percentage of errors in initial placement with relatively young children. In many cases, where the time score is merely mediocre, the quality of the solution is such as to be an excellent index of intellectual superiority, as well as of intelligence. In general, the younger the child, the less is an inferior time score diagnostic of inferiority in this test, and the more important become purely qualitative considerations. The various analytic elements involved in this and other performance tests will be discussed in the section of this paper devoted to qualitative considerations. The cylinder test well merits its place in the battery, because of the light it throws upon these analytic elements. The Dearborn Formboard C

Significant results on the Dearborn Formboard C, first trial, are as follows: Maximum failure (ten cases), minimum 34 seconds, median 165 seconds, and 60 per cent range, 100 seconds to 340 seconds. Four per cent of the cases succeed in less than one minute, 34.1 per cent in less than two minutes, 55 per cent in less than three minutes, 79.1 per cent in less than five minutes, and 91.6 per cent in less than ten minutes. The median does not compare favorably with that of the high school group.

The minimum score was obtained by 25F, aged 11-11, followed closely by 185M, aged 9-6. These values are reported to show how relatively little significance the chronological age of the subject possesses in the final distribution. The youngest child to finish the test within the ten minute limit was 162M, aged 5-4. The oldest child to fail the test was 189M, aged 7-4.

The sex difference in this test, within this group, is negligible. Investigation of the number of each sex found above the median shows exactly 50 per cent of the boys and 50 per cent of the girls. The number of boys and girls in the highest decile is equal, which indicates a slight preference in the direction of the girls, since there are more boys than girls in the group. The number of failures shows no significant difference between the sexes. This result is at variance with the findings in unselected groups at both the six and the fifteen year level which show a marked sex difference in favor ?f the boys. In view of the relatively small size of this group, the finding here may be the result of accident, in that the distribution is somewaat scattered.

On the second trial, significant results are as follows: maximum failure (ten cases) ; minimum 23 seconds, median 85 seconds, and 60 per cent range 52 seconds to 175 seconds. Thirty-two and fourtenths per cent succeed in less than a minute, 66.6 per cent in less than two minutes, 79.2 per cent in less than three minutes, and 91.6 Per cent within the ten minute time limit. The median does not compare favorably with that of the fifteen year level groups. The minimum score was obtained by 103M, aged 10-6, followed by 25F, aged 11-11 (who made the best score on trial one). The youngest child to pass the second trial was again 162M, aged 4-11, with a rank of 82 in 120 cases. The oldest child to fail the test on the second trial was 26F, aged 6-4.

There is a slight indication of a sex difference in the second trial, in that 53 per cent of the boys fall above the median, as against 46 per cent of the girls. The ratio of girls to boys in the highest decile is as two to three. However, in view of the small number of cases this finding cannot be considered of any great significance.

Like the cylinders, the Dearborn Test has its greatest value as an aid in analytic diagnosis. It is an excellent test to use in combination with the cylinders, as the problem is essentially different. While the cylinder test shows relative fineness of discrimination of size, with the general form constant, in the Dearborn the size is relatively constant and the discrimination involved is one of form. The selection of blocks in the Dearborn has been an exceptionally happy one, in that it shows up clearly the various steps of increasing complexity in form discrimination, proceeding from the simple oval and rectangle, to the difficult triangulation problem. I believe that a successful performance on the Dearborn involves not only intelligence, but (unless the method is unselective trial and error) a fairly complex intellectual level. As an aid to analytic diagnosis, this test is invaluable. The actual analytic elements involved will be discussed in another section of the paper, but those which are pre-eminent are analytic discrimination of form, distribution of attention, and planfulness. As with the cylinders, the time score, especially with younger children, is of far less relative significance than purely qualitative considerations. THE SLOT MAZE TESTS (YOUNG)

Maze A

Young’s Easy Maze Test (Boy and Shoe) was used only at the six year old level, and the results at this level, as with the Witmer formboard, comprise only thirty-two cases. Significant results of the first trial are as follows: Maximum failure 6.2 per cent, minimum 18 seconds, median 49 seconds, and a 60 per cent modal range of 26 seconds to 144 seconds. Fifty-two and six-tenths per cent succeed in less than a minute, 78.1 per cent in less than two minutes, 84.3 per cent in less than three minutes, and 93.8 per cent within the time limit of five minutes.

On the first trial within this small group, the sex difference is marked, and in favor of the boys. Sixty-three and one-tenth per cent of the boys score above the median for the group, and 30.7 per cent of the girls. In the rank order distribution, nine boys are superior to any girl. Of the two failures, one is a boy, and one a girl.

Significant results on the second trial are as follows: Maximum failure, (one case), minimum 12 seconds, median 25 seconds, and modal range 16 seconds to 95 seconds. There is very marked time improvement on second trial distributions, throughout the group. Above the median on this trial we find 68.4 per cent of the boys, as against 23 per cent of the girls, confirming the previous sex difference.

When we compare the results of this small selected group with Dr Easby-Grave’s norms at the six year level, there is a distinct difference in favor of this group. For the first trial, the median time at the six year level is 95 seconds, as compared with 49 seconds for this group. She reports 17 per cent failure, as against 6.2 per cent for the superior group. On the second trial, the median at the six year level is 50 seconds, and for the superior group, 25 seconds. This is in spite of the fact that in this group the chronological age range scatters down to 3-11, which is considerably under that covered by the Easby-Grave results.

Maze C Significant results on the first trial for Maze C are as follows: Maximum failure (twenty cases), minimum 39 seconds, median 209 seconds, and 60 per cent range 122 seconds to 495 seconds. Three and three-tenths per cent succeed in less than a minute, 19.2 Per cent in less than two minutes, 40.8 per cent in less than three minutes, 63.3 per cent in less than five minutes, and 83.3 per cent Within the ten minute time limit. Seventeen per cent fail to do the test within the required time.

The minimum time score was secured by 92F, aged 12-10, followed by 116M, aged 9-11. The youngest child to succeed with the test within the time limit was 20M, aged 5-9. Failures with the test, even in this highly selected group, run up to 11-5. The sex difference on this test is marked, and in favor of the boys. Above the median we find 56 per cent of the boys, as against 41 per cent of the girls. The ratio of girls to boys is one to four in the upper three deciles. The failures, however, are divided equally between the two sexes.

On the second trial the significant results are as follows: maximum failure (twelve cases), minimum 25 seconds, median 83 seconds, and 60 per cent range 53 seconds to 198 seconds. Thirty per cent succeeded in less than a minute, 65.8 per cent in less than two minutes, 76.6 per cent in less than three minutes, and 90 per cent within the time limit of ten minutes.

The minimum time score was secured by 59M, aged 14-7. The youngest child to succeed on the second trial was 85F, aged 4-11. Failures on the second trial run up to 9-1. On the second trial the sex difference becomes even more apparent. Above the median here we find 62 per cent of the boys as against 34 per cent o^ the girls. In the upper three deciles, the ratio is three to one in favor of the boys.

In interpreting the results on Maze C, the examiner is handicapped by an absence of norms. Within the next six months such norms will be available, as they are under preparation at this Laboratory. The sole value of the test, therefore, to date, lies in its contribution to the analytic diagnosis. However, examiners within this Laboratory present most conflicting opinions as to what are the analytic elements involved in the test. Certainly, as regards this present study, the examiner considers the relation of success on the Maze tests to general competency to be negligible. Solution of this test appears to involve some specific ability with maze tests. The high percentage of failure within his group, as compared with the Dearborn Test (which is presumably at the same level) indicates that an entirely different set of abilities is involved. That there should be so high a percentage of failure within this particular group, selected because of superior intelligence and high intellectual level, would seem to indicate that these latter two items are not primarily involved in the solution of the test of the maze type. The presence of too much imagination is a deterrent rather than an aid in this test, as it leads the individual to suspect a trap, and look for a short-cut. Several very bright children reported to me that it seemed to them “stupid” to go all the way around.” The general significance of these results can be interpreted only after the completion of the study of the Maze referred to above. The General Diagnostic Value of the Performance Tests The performance tests should be considered an, essential part of every clinical examination. Observation of performance tests of the type of the formboard, cylinder, and Dearborn, is the most practical way in which to rate the individual’s out-put from the point of view of certain of the analytic categories. The performance test provides the opportunity for the observation of the concrete overt behavior of an individual who is engaged in solving a problem. Tests of the intellectual type give the individual an opportunity to display behavior, of course, but they are inadequate for providing measures of such items as rate and accuracy of movement, co-ordination, co-operation, planfulness and control. Analytic discrimination and distribution of attention are required, it is true, in reading or arithmetic, but their operation may be inferred with far more certainty from the observation of a test of the performance type. In that the performance test presents a concrete new problem, it is safer to make a judgment concerning intelligence (specific) from such a test, than from a test which is primarily concerned with intellectual development. In the discussion of the diagnosis of specific intelligence on the basis of the performance test results, we are always confronted with the problem of those individuals who possess a high level of intellectual attainment, but whose work with tests of the performAN ANALYTICAL STUDY 53 ance type is a low mediocre. Must we say that such individuals are intellectual, but not intelligent ? In my opinion the answer to this question is ” no.” After all, the problems which life presents to the adult who is operating at a high intellectual level, many and varied as they are, are in very rare instances of this simple, concrete and mechanical type. The individual who solves his problems in the intellectual field is none the less solving problems, and should thus be credited with a high degree of intelligence. The very presence of a high intellectual level, in the true sense of the word, presupposes superior intelligence on the part of its possessor. It is for this reason that I have included within the superior group, and designated as of superior intelligence and intellectual attainment, individuals whose scores on the performance tests are far from reaching the upper one percentile of all children of their age.’

The performance tests possess diagnostic value in proportion as they are able to throw light upon the problems of the analytic diagnosis. Time scores are of relatively greater value with increase in chronological age on the part of the subject. At and below the six year level, analytic considerations become more and more diagnostic and time scores correlatively of less value.

TESTS OF SCHOOL PROFICIENCY

In testing school proficiency, children were tried on the three written tests at the fifteen year level, or on any of these tests which they gave evidence of being able to handle. If they were obviously below this level, a rough test of reading and arithmetical proficiency was made.

Beading

i Six year level and below: Ninety-five cases demonstrated enough reading ability to be permitted to try the Monroe Silent Reading, and will be reported in that group. The remaining twenty-five cases distribute as follows: Grade Proficiency No. of Cases 3rd 6 2nd 3 1st 3 Pre-School 12

Among the pre-school group there was only one case who had not taken on at least the beginnings of reading, in the sense of the knowledge of letters, words, etc. This one child, aged 4-2, had unquestionably the competency to learn letters and simple words, but her parents had deliberately refrained from presenting this sort of material in order that no confusion might be caused when the child entered school. The youngest child to display the ability to do phonic analysis was 195M, aged 3-11. I should venture to state that no child is included within this group, of pre-school age, who does not already possess six year reading competency, at least. Children at the six year level, and already in school show great acceleration in reading proficiency, with the possible exception of those in the first grade, who are held back by the limitations of the teaching method, and have not yet acquired reading as a tool.

Monroe Silent Reading Test Significant results on the Monroe Silent Reading are distributed in terms of Rate Score and Comprehension Score. Rate The maximum rate score attained was 146, or the maximum possible. The median is 98, the 60 per cent range 81-146. The minimum rate score is 43, scored by a child 7-3. Twenty-three and nine-tenths per cent give a perfect score, 33.3 per cent, 133 or better; 37.5 per cent, 119 or better; 48 per cent, 108 or better; 69.8 per cent, 98 or better; 81.4 per cent, 81 or better; 95.7 per cent, 69 or better. The youngest child to make a perfect rate score was 188M, aged 7-11 (comprehension score poor). The youngest child to attempt the test was 190F, aged 6-11. The median rate score for this group (median c. a. 9-9) is the 20 per cent point in the high school distribution. The Monroe Silent Reading test used in this investigation is placed for the sixth, seventh and eighth grades. Only 25 per cent of this group are above the mode for the sixth grade in chronological age. That 70 per cent of these children were able to handle the test gives some idea of the relative reading acceleration prevalent in this group. Comprehension Comprehension scores distributed from a maximum score of 45, to a minimum of 5. The median point is reached at 24. The modal range is a wide one?17-40. The scattering is largely at the lower chronological age levels. The 25 per cent point is reached at 36, which is approximately the high school median. The median for this group is at the 20 per cent mark in the high school group. Considering the wide chronological age range, this over-lap into the high school group appears to signify marked acceleration insofar as reading comprehension is concerned.

The youngest child to make a perfect comprehension score, however, is 12-10, which indicates that this is one test at least in which chronological age proves a significant factor. At the next score level (one error in comprehension) the youngest child is 153F, aged 9-5.

Although one would have expected the finding, it is obvious from this distribution of results, that these children as a group, are greatly accelerated in reading proficiency. They are also characterized by a great love of reading, as will be indicated under another caption. There is no question that, once the superior child acquires reading as a tool, independent reading becomes the chief source of his high information level. In handling these children in the classroom, the teacher should remember that while his slower comrades are struggling with the mechanics of reading, the superior child should be set to reading for content and information, and thus make original contributions to the class activities.

Arithmetic?Six Year Level That this group tends to be somewhat more advanced in reading than arithmetic is evidenced by the fact that while only twentyfour cases were unable to handle the reading tests, thirty failed to demonstrate sufficient arithmetical proficiency to attempt the fifteen year arithmetic test. These cases at the six year level distribute as follows: Grade Proficiency No. of Cases 3rd 6 2nd 4 1st 9 Pre-School 11 (Counting Only) In the group are included, as it happens, no so-called mathematical prodigies, or no pre-school children with an unusual inter56 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC est in numerical relationships. There appears to be less tendency to teach the pre-school child number combinations, than words and letters. Fifteen Year Old Arithmetic Test Significant results on this test are reported in terms of time and score.

Time

Dr Learning, in using this test at the fifteen year old level, set an arbitrary time limit of fifteen minutes. In view of the fact that this group comprises largely younger children, the time was not limited. Significant scores distribute as follows: Maximum 2,002 seconds, minimum 153 seconds, median 585 seconds, and 60 per cent range 315 seconds-960 seconds. The time distribution is thus seen to scatter greatly. A glance at the tabic will show the essential features of the distribution. The median score, 585, approaches the maximum for the high school groups, but for groups at the fifteen year level, other than high school, an entire quintile will be found to exceed this score.

The case giving the minimum score on time, is 61M, aged 12-3. Here again the influence of efficiency increments gained through age manifests itself. Fifth in the distribution, however, appears 11F, aged 9-5, and from then on the distribution scatters with reference to chronological age. The youngest child to attempt the test was 127F, aged 8-5.

Score

The significant values for score are as follows: Maximum 8, minimum 1, median 6, and modal 60 per cent range 4-7. Six and six-tenths per cent obtain a perfect score, 34.7 per cent a score of 7 or better, 57.7 per cent a score of 6 or better, 73.3 per cent a score of 5 or better, 91 per cent a score of 4 or better. No cases obtain a zero score. The median score for high school pupils is 7 for the boys and 6 for the girls. This group therefore compares favorably in arithmetical efficiency with the high school groups, despite the dilference in the median choronological age. The youngest child to obtain a perfect arithmetic score is 158F, aged 8-11. There are several eight year old children in the highest decile. “When we consider that the median school grade for eight years is the third, and realize the difficulty of these arithmetical Problems as compared with the usual third grade work, we are able to obtain a fairly clear picture of the degree of acceleration in arithmetical efficiency possessed by some of these children. There are individual exceptions to the rule of increased efficiency in arithmetical operations. There were a few cases, also, in which findings on this test failed to confirm the class-room impression gained by the teacher. One ten year old girl, notoriously poor ^ arithmetic in her class work, scored 7 on this test. The cause of her poor showing in her class work (she was working at the fifth grade level) was sheer ennui. In other cases, superior children, finding the class-room routine in arithmetic dull, have refused to take on efficiency because they lacked the sense of competition which leads to increased effort. ‘

On the whole, however, the children in this group have “plus” efficiency in fundamental operations, and possess a good number sense. None of them has shown any particular talent in the field of mathematics; the one case who was referred because of superiority in this field, failed to “make the group” as judged by other tests. None, on the other hand, has shown signs of specific defect in this field, other than mild carelessness. Woodwortli and Wells Hard Directions Test1

Time

Significant results regarding time are as follows: Maximum 485 seconds, minimum 88 seconds, median 240 seconds, 60 per cent range 177-315 seconds. The median time does not compare favorably with that of the high school groups, but is superior to the median for fifteen year old groups other than high school. The minimum score was obtained by a high school boy, 60M, aged 14-9, and falls six seconds short of being as good as the minimum time for high school boys. The youngest child to attempt the test was 190F, aged 6-11 (time score in sixth decile).

Score

The maximum score for this group is 20, with 24.4 per cent of the cases. The 50 per cent mark is passed with a score of 19 (one error). Eighty-two per cent give 18 or better. The minimum score is 9, with one case. The youngest child to obtain a perfect score is 86F, aged 8-1. The youngest child to attempt the test, 1 96 cases.

190F, made a score of 18 (two errors only). The median score of this group, 19, is the median score of the high school group. The uniformly high results on this test are of real significance. The Directions Test purports to get at the ability of the individual quickly to apprehend and follow directions. In a discussion of the characteristics of the superior child from the teacher’s point of view, I was told by the teacher of the accelerated class where I discovered several of these cases, that this ability to apprehend and follow directions on a single presentation is one of the most striking characteristics of the group. The truth of this assertion was constantly sensed in the course of the investigation by the reaction to the test situation in general. Success with the Directions Test itself, involves a high degree of concentration of attention and alertness. The ability to apprehend and follow directions, producing the pattern of behavior required, is fundamental in both trainability and educability. It is a valuable asset at all times. The results on this test are very convincing evidence that it is an asset possessed by this group, in unusual degree.

QUALITATIVE CONSIDEKATIONS

In outlining the problem for this study, I defined’ qualitative considerations as comprising the psychographic make-up of the child, based upon the observation of performance, and such indications as may be discovered as to the individual’s general orientation, interests and value trends. The psychographic make-up of each child was plotted on the analytic schedule reproduced on pp. 69-70. This chart was first presented in an article by Dr Witmer20 in his “Psychological Clinic” and followed in the same number, by a case study21 to show the practical working of the diagnostic schedule. Other than this, there has been no presentation of results using this particular schedule.

In rating on a five point scale which ranges from marked superiority to marked inferiority, through a median range of three, one is confronted immediately, in dealing with a selected group at the superior end of the scale, with the problem of the evaluation 30 “Witmer, L. The Analytical Diagnosis. Psychol. Clinic, 1922, 14, 129-135.

“Jones, A. M. Miss Inconsistency. Same reference, 136-142. of the scale. Shall three represent the median for the selected group, or for an unselected distribution of all children? As the schedule is used in routine clinical examinations, the latter procedure is followed. If such a plan is followed in this group, the problem of making the psychograph of the superior individual is enormously simplified, the range being, for the most part, limited through three and five, and most of the ratings, in practical procedure, falling at either four or five. However, for the purpose of viewing this group in contrast with a group of “normals,” this procedure was followed. For the purpose of discovering fine distinctions within the group itself, it will be found more satisfactory to evaluate the scale with reference to the selected group. In this paper only the more general findings can be reported; in the final analysis, the essesntial value of the individual psycliograph is seen in the individual case study. An attempt to give statistical treatment to such results serves only to obscure their real meaning. (It is my opinion that one of the most valuable forms of treatment for a set of results such as these would be in the presentation of a separate study of each individual child. Some of the more interesting eases have been already presented in Volume XV of The Psychological Clinic, and it is probable that the series will be continued.)

For a complete understanding of all the implications of the items reported in this diagnostic schedule, it is necessary to have a working knowledge of the entire categorical scheme of classification under which Doctor Witmer is subsuming all possible forms of behavior. It is manifestly impossible for me to give even an indication of this scheme within the limitations of this paper. As for the items themselves, their definition is, for the most part, that in current usage.

Under competency are subsumed the two items ability and efficiency. In the introduction, in dealing with the question of individual efficiency, I indicated that this item represented the fractional relationship of an individual’s production to his estimated capability for production. We are able to measure the proficiency of the individual, but the competency rating must always represent an estimate.

Any individual who is included within a superior group should be rated five in competency. In using the I. Q. as the diagnostic criterion, it is possible that there are included within the group some eases where such a rating may be considered mildly doubtful, because of unusual environmental advantages.

77F, aged four years, is a case in point. This little girl attained an I. Q. of 150. Her memory span was 7. In chronological age, she falls below the six year level, so that failure with the six-year performance tests need not necessarily prove of significance. She passed the Formboard, but failed with the Cylinders, and Maze A, both of which are passed by many children of her age. Her language development and general comprehension are excellent. She shows a high degree of educability with material of the intellectual type. However, she shows an almost complete lack of initiative and vivacity. She is the third child in a family in which the two older children give unmistakable and clear-cut pictures of general superiority. There are two younger children, and this little girl has never been 11 babied,’’ but the mother reports that she has always displayed a lamentable lack of initiative, and excessive timidity.

Whether, as she grows older, she will acquire a more acceptable social orientation, it is impossible to judge. Because of these personality and character traits, especially the lack of initiative, one is led to question whether, deprived of her favorable surroundings, she would have displayed the degree of intellectual acceleration to warrant placement in this group. On the other hand, some cases were unquestionably excluded from the group, in which the competency was very high, and the individual efficiency (particularly in the field of language) so low as to make a high I. Q. impossible.

Such a case is 140M, aged fourteen years. The boy is of Russian Jewish parentage, and was born in Russia, having been in this country only a year. In spite of his language handicap, he made’ an I. Q. of 121, his vocabulary scoring 60, which is almost at the average adult level. His work on performance tests was excellent, and in view of his language deprivation, he gave excellent results on the written tests.

Had he been born in America, and subjected to the usual educational procedure in English, there seems little question that his scores would have been found well within those required to enter the superior group. Individual cases, such as these, in which there is a marked contrast between the estimated, and the demonstrable productivity, are best handled by a psychographic record which will show the relationship between competency on the one hand, and efficiency on the other.

The items of speed and accuracy, with their respective subheadings productivity and directions are valuable in making a psychographic description. Information concerning rate of discharge and accuracy of movement is best gained from observation of the performance tests; information regarding rapidity of ‘’ intelAN ANALYTICAL STUDY 61 lection” and intellectual accuracy is best gained from the written tests, and from the manner of reaction to oral questions. Speed and accuracy are closely related to the items which follow?co-ordination (co-operation and planfulness) and control. In observing the reaction to the performance tests we find within the group, variations in type from the quick, relatively inaccurate individual to the slow and very planful type. However, the accuracy rating never falls below three and the productivity score is always at least four. A considerable percentage of cases show a high rate of discharge, coupled with a high degree of accuracy and planfulness. Certain cases cover a lack of planfulness with an exceedingly rapid trial and error. Although there are a few individual exceptions to this rule, motor control and co-ordination tend to rate four or five. The schedule continues with the items effort and initiative. In the amount of effort at its disposal, this group is far superior to the average. That the superior child does not, in many situations, display an unusual degree of effort is not surprising, in view of the fact that he is able to succeed in many types of competition without difficulty. However, when confronted with a test situation, it is readily discernible that a superior amount of effort, and a superior ability to “bend all effort” upon the task in hand, is characteristic of the group. The superiority of the bright child from the view point of initiative is so obvious that it needs little discussion. Initiative and origination are the essential characteristics of the truly superior individual; it is these, in the long run, which tend to mark him off from the group. If the individual fails to display some evidence of superior initiative, there is a question as to whether he merits a high competency rating.

In vital energy, endurance, strength and health, the modal rating for this group is four. As a group, they are healthy and strong children, although there are a few exceptions in cases where some physical defect has acted as an incentive to intellectual productivity. Although no study was made of this particular phase of superiority, the examiner is convinced, from the superior differentiation, displayed in response to problem situations, that these children are characterized by superior fineness of sensitivity. A very interesting investigation might be opened up in this field. In the analytic concentration and distribution of attention, which underlie success with the performance tests and are funda62 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC mental, analytically speaking, in the building up of intellect, the median score for this group is approximately five. Since these abilities are fundamental in meeting the test situation (designed especially to call for their display) it is obvious that a group which is especially successful with intelligence testing material must display these abilities in more than usual degree. In the general discussion following the memory span test results, I made it clear that this group rates high in memory, or integration span, and consequently in organizability. This leads to complexity of intellectual organization, a high degree of comprehension, and a rising of the general intellectual level. In memorial capacity, immobility and retention, the superior child, without exception, rates above four. As we approach the higher degrees of superiority there is frequently a desire to give some rating higher than, five to indicate how great is the relative superiority in this field. Analytically speaking, memory is dependent upon imageability, and we must infer, from the results obtained on tests, that each child included within the group must possess superior imagery in some field.

The superior child is the most educable, or perfectable type of child. This means that we must give him a high rating on such items as conformability, susceptibility, and convertibility? as these are fundamental in the transformation of the child, which we call education. I include no child within the group to whom I would not give a rating of five on educability.

As for intelligence, in the specific sense of the word, I indicated in the discussion of the significance of the performance tests, that in my opinion, the very possession of a high level of intellectual attainment was, in itself, an evidence of relatively superior intelligence. The median intelligence score for the group is a low four. Five is given in only very exceptional cases, and then usually because of evidence of some capacity for creative origination. In those considerations which may be subsumed primarily under personality, we find our greatest individual variations within the group. The danger of approaching a study of this sort from the point of view of general tendencies, is that in so doing the individual differences are ironed out. Let no one imagine that this is a homogeneous group. A separate study could well be written concerning the personality variations among superior children. “Personality,” as such, concerns individuals and not groups. There are certain personality attributes concerning which we may be able to point out the group tendencies, however. With reference to the superior-inferior orientation of the superior child, I should state that the general tendency is toward a wholesome balance between the two motives. In some cases there is a decided sense of superiority which, although merited, always acts as a very effective cloak to any charm which the child may chance to possess. This sense of superiority is very much more apparent among children of Semitic than of mixed-American stock. In only two cases reported in this study was it mentioned that there is a tendency toward the inferiority orientation. One of these is 77F, the little girl whose case is reported above, and the other is 33F, where a hyper-analytical tendency on the part of the mother tended to exaggerate what appears to the examiner as a rather pleasing modesty.

An excellent balance concerning the inferiority-motive, accompanied by a (slightly superior degree of confidence, is a characteristic of the superior child. When I speak of confidence, I do not mean ‘’ conceit,’’ as these children have a saving grace in a critical attitude toward themselves. Root makes special note of this tendency to wholesome self-criticism in his group of fifty-three “supernorms. ‘’ In their relations with other persons, the group tends decidedly toward the extravert type. These children are pleasing in personality, and popular both with children and adults. In very few cases is there any tendency to introversion. A semblance of introversion appears in some cases where the love of reading is so great that it is difficult to make the child show a normal interest in play at his own age level, but that this is not actual introversion is indicated by popularity with children in the class room, and during actual play intervals.

In his reaction to organized authority, the superior child shows unusually fine social orientation. With very few exceptions, these children are exceptionally conscientious in the performance of duty, have a high sense? of individual responsibility, and in some cases an almost exaggerated sense of justice. Seriously non-conformed behavior in school occurred in only one case, and has since cleared up. In this case the etiology appeared to be an unfortunate lack of rapport between the home and the school. In some cases the mothers reported that it was exceptionally difficult to discipline 64 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC these children because of the unusual sense of justice. In view of the fact that general conformity of behavior is after all the most intelligent reaction to the home and school problem for the child, the prevalence of such conformity is evidence of a relatively good social orientation.

In the matter of temperament, or mood, a single examination did not afford enough information to make an adequate rating. However, if a single interview can give an indication, at least, I should report the general tendency to be very decidedly in the direction of exhilaration rather than depression. If mood is, in general, an expression of metabolism, we should expect a significant absence of depression in a group with health and vital energy ratings above the mode.

In range of interests this group unquestionably exceeds the modal group. The interest in reading is universal. Many of these children are already confirmed “book worms.” The rate of reading is uniformly accelerated and in view of the superior cultural status of the majority of the homes, the opportunity for reading is almost unlimited. There appears to be little appreciation of real literary merit, however, in these young children, most of whom profess a preference for the fiction of the “series” type, upon which questionable intellectual diet is fattening the youth of the nation. A minority of cases has enjoyed intelligent reading supervision. Still others have been “brought up” on the Book of Knowledge. Many of the boys are keenly interested in Popular Mechanics. The important point in the discussion of reading, however, is the universality of interest in reading, and the consequently high informational level. Comparatively few cases have shown, as yet, any tendency to production in the literary field. About ten per cent of the cases admit to an unusual interest in writing, and occasional attempts outside the field of school assignments. Four such cases were reported in The Psychological Clinic for May-June, 1923. All the children in the group do consistently good work in English composition, as compared to their slower classmates.

Extra-curricular activities are many and various. A large proportion of the girls have had lessons on the piano, and most of them are considered entirely satisfactory pupils. The number of children with an intense interest in music is smaller than that with an “urge” toward production in the field of written language. Four such cases were reported, however, in the Clinic for January, 1924. In view of the superior confidence, many of the children are interested in, and successful at, dramatics. There is no field of ordinary childhood interest which is not represented somewhere within the group, and most of the members are marked by an impressive catholicity of interest. The one tendency which is most to be fostered, is found present, to some degree at least, in the majority of these children. That is the tendency toward origination. What the ultimate achievement level of each individual will be, and what will be his contribution to society, depends, in large measure, upon his ability for creative production.

CONCLUSIONS

I- A diagnosis of superiority presupposes a quantitative criterion, which can be most concretely attained in terms of frequency of occurrence. For the purposes of this investigation, this diagnostic criterion is the upper one percentile as determined from distributions of Intelligence Quotient at the six and fifteen year old level. The actual criterion is 140 at the fifteen year old level, and 147 at the six year level.

II. The superior group shows marked physiological acceleration as expressed in height and weight indices. The tendency here is so clear as to indicate that there is a significant inter-relation between physical and mental growth. We may perhaps account in these terms for the frequent regression to norm following the end ?f the growth period, seen in cases which have shown unusual childhood promise.

III. The factor of sex is operative in the selection of cases, in that the group as constituted is composed of 57.5 per cent boys and 42.5 per cent girls, although the number of boys and girls examined as candidates was approximately equal.

IV. Racial factors appear to be of relatively little significance in this group. There is, however, an overweighting of Jewish cases in proportion to the population.

V. Analysis of the economic and cultural status of the homes shows an extreme tendency toward superior environmental factors.

VI. In mental age, this group shows a median acceleration of five years beyond the chronological. These mental age scores, especially in cases below the level of pubescence, are so high as to give a distorted picture of the relative intellectual complexity of the subjects. 66 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC The mental age concept is inadequate for the superior, as for the inferior child; qualitatively speaking, the superior child is a creature of different organization from the modal child of either his chronological or his mental age. VII. The superior group is characterized by a very high level of vocabulary, and general complexity in language development. Although this is unquestionably related to the high cultural status of the homes, it appears perhaps the most significant single factor in the high intellectual level of the group as a whole. VIII. In all forms of memory span tested, the median for this group is that of the most superior group at the fifteen year level? the high school group. This is a significant index of the high educability, as well as of the relative complexity of intellectual organization characteristic of the superior child. IX. In performance tests, although the mean chronological age of the group is 9-9, the median scores fall well within the fifteen year level range. In rating performance tests, however, qualitative considerations rather than time scores are the most significant factors. X. The group tendency is toward marked acceleration in reading proficiency. This excess proficiency inculcates a tendency to read for 4’content” at a relatively early age, and is thus a very important factor in the ultimate level of intellectual attainment. XI. There is also acceleration in arithmetical proficiency, but at the earlier age levels this appears a less significant factor than the acceleration in reading proficiency. XII. In the ability to apprehend and follow directions, the median score for this group is that of the group of high school pupils. XIII. From the qualitative point of view, these children are characterized by relatively high ratings on almost all the important items in the analytic diagnosis schedule. The items which are especially characteristic of the group are intelligence, initiative, origination and educability. XIV. In personality they are marked by a balanced superiorityinferiority orientation, by a tendency toward the extravert, rather than the introvert type, by superior social orientation, shown in an intelligent reaction to organized authority, and by a wide range of interests. AN ANALYTICAL STUDY 67 XV. There is a lamentable tendency upon the part of the schools to fail to provide adequate educational facilities for the maximum development of the potentialities displayed by the members of this group.

BIBLIOGRAPHY (Selected)

Badenes, J. E. The First Practical Steps in Selecting Gifted Children in a Large City School. N. Y. 1921. pp. 22. Baldwin, B. T. Physical Growth and School Progress, U. S. Ed. Bur. Bull. 10, 1914. The Relation Between Mental and Physical Growth, J. of Educ. Psych. 1922, 13, pp. 61. Baldwin, B. T. Mental Growth Curve of Normal and Superior Children. and Stecher, L. I. Iowa Studies in Child Welfare, 1922, 2, pp. 61. Carothers, W. H. The Supernormal Child. Teaching, 1920, 5, 20-27. Cautley, E. The Precocious Child. Child, 1919, 9, 481-96. Colvin, S. S. What Infant Prodigies Teach Educators. Illustrated World, 1915, 24, 47-52. Cleveland, E. Some Further Studies of Gifted Children. J. of Ed. Research, 1921, 4, 195-199. Dolbear, K. E. Precocious Children. Ped. Sem. 19, 1912, 461-491. Basby-Grave, C. Tests and Norms at the Six-Year Level of Competency. Psychol. Clinic, 15, No. 9, 1924. Dillingham, A. Superior Children, Their School Progress. J. of Educ. Psych. 1920, 11, 327-347. Kumpstone, H. J. Some Aspects of the Memory Span Test. Psych. Clinic Press, Philadelphia, 1917. Jones, A. M. Miss Inconsistency. Psychol. Clinic, 1922, 14, 136-142. The Superior Child: A Series of Case Studies. Psychol. Clinic, 15, 1923; 1-8; 116-123; 130-137. beaming, R. E. Tests and Norms for Vocational Guidance at the FifteenYear-Old Level. Psychol. Clinic, 1922, 14, 193-220. ^udge, E. L. The Superior Girl in Early Adolescence. Ped. Sem. 1923, 30, 45-47. Myers, G. G. Comparative Intelligence Ratings of Three Social Groups Within the Same School. School and Soc., 1921, 13, 536-39. Paschall, F. G . The Witmer Cylinder Test. The Hershey Press, 1918. pp. 54. Boot, W. T. A Socio-psychological Study of Fifty-three Supernormal Children. Psychol. Monog. 1921, 29, No. 133. Starr, A. S. The Diagnostic Value of the Audito-Vocal Digit Memory Span. Psychol. Clinic, 1923, 15, 61-84. 68 TEE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC Stern, W. The Supernormal Child. J. of Ed. Psychol. 1911, 2, 143-148, 183-90. Terman, L. M. A Preliminary Study in the Psychology and Pedagogy of Leadership. Fed. Sem. 1904, 11, 413-451. Genius and Stupidity. Fed. Sem. 1906, 13, 307-373. Research in Mental Deviation Among Children. BucTcel Found. Bull. No. 2., Stanford University. Nov. 1915. Intelligence Quotient of Francis Galton in Childhood. Am. J. of Psychol., 1917, 28, 209-215. The Mental Hygiene of Exceptional Children. Ped. Sem., 1915, 22, 529-37. The Measurement of Intelligence. Houghton Mifflin Co., 1916. The Intelligence of School Children. Houghton-Mifflin Co., 1919. A New Approach to the Study of Genius. Psych. Rev. 1922, 29, 319-318. Town, C. E. The Superior Child in Our Schools. Educ. Bev. 65, 1923, 17-21. Witmer, L. The Analytic Diagnosis. Psych. Clinic, XIV, 1922, p. 129. Intelligence?A Definition. Psych. Clinic, XIY, 1922, p. 65. Training of Very Bright Children. Psych. Clinic, XIII, 1919, p. 88. Performance and Success. Psych. Clinic, XII, 1919, p. 145. Efficiency and Other Factors of Success. Psych. Clinic, XII, 1919, p. 241. Problem of Educability. Psych. Clinic, XII, 1919, p. 174. The Relation of Intelligence to Efficiency, Psych. Clinic, IX, 1915, p. 61. What Is Intelligence and Who Has It? Scientific Monthly, August, 1922. Van Siecle, Witmer Provision for Exceptional Children in Public Schools. and Ayres U. S. Bureau E. Bull. No. 14, 1911. Yates D. E. A Study of Some High School Seniors of Superior Intelligence. Bloomington Pub. School Pub. Co., 1922. Young, E. E. Slot Maze A. Psychol. Clinic, 1922, 14, 73-82. The Witmer Formboard. Psychol. Clinic, 1923, 15, 85-91. AN ANALYTICAL STUDY 69 THE ANALYTIC DIAGNOSIS ^arne: Race: Born: Age: Culture L. 1 2 3 4 5 Basis of estimate: 1- Proficiency M’s: (See Mental Exam. Blank) 2- Competency 2 a) Ability a b) Efficiency b 3. Speed 3 a) Productivity a 4. Accuracy 4 a) Directions a 5. Coordination 5 a) Cooperation a b) Planfulness b 6. Control 6 7. Effort 7 8- Initiative 8 9- Pertinacity 9 o) Endurance a b) Strength b c) Health… c 10. Energy, V 10 a) Excitability a b) Vivacity b c) Motivation c d) Personality d Social (B) I. Q. School P. L. Spec. A’s: Spec. D’s: 11. Differentiation (R) 11 Sensib: V.A.K.P.G. Moral; Aesthetic 12. Consistency 12 a) Reliability a 13. A. D. (A.C.A.) 13 a) Distribution a 14. Complexity (R) 14 a) Comprehension a b) I. S b c) Organizability c 15. Pers. (P.C.A.)?D 15 16. Exploration (No) 16 17. Discernment L 17 a) Alertness a 18. Interest (No) 18 a) Zest a 70 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC 25. Intelligence 25 26. Achievement L 26 27. Confidence 27 28. Ambition 28 29. Balance 29 a) Soc. Orientation a 30. Judgment 30 19. Trainability 19 a) Retention a b) Capacity b 20. Conformability 20 21. Imageability 21 22. Originality 22 23. Educability 23 a) Intellect a 24. Convertibility 24 a) Susceptibility a CORRECTED TABLES TO SHOW DECILES WITH INTERDECILE CHRONOLOGICAL AGE RANGES BINET CHRONOLOGICAL AGE AND BASAL AGE Decile Chronological Age Decile Basal Age C. A. Range I 5 to 7 3-11 to 6-3 II 8 to 10 5-7 to 10-11 III 10 to 10 7-3 to 8-11 IV 10 to 12 7-11 to 10-11 V 12 to 12 8-11 to 9-9 VI 12 to 12 9-10 to 10-9 VII 12 to 14 9-3 to 13-4 VIII- 14 to 14 10-4 to 11-11 IX 14 to 16 9-6 to 12-7 X 16 to S. A. 10-9 to 14-9 MINIMUM MAXIMUM MEDIAN MODE (60%) Chron. Age 3-11 14-9 9-9 7-3 to 11-5 Basal Age 5 S. Adult 12 10 to 14 BINET TESTS DECILE LIMITS Decile Mental Age Age Range Decile Intelligence Age Range Quotient I. 6-0 to 9-4 ( 3-11 to 6-3) II. 9-4 to 11-0 ( 5-7 to 7-4) III. 11-4 to 14-4 ( 7-2 to 9-5) IV. 14-4 to 15-0 ( 8-5 to 10-7) V. 15-0 to 15-7| ( 8-11 to 10-11) VI 15-7* to 16-1? ( 8-8 to 11-9) VII 16-1* to 17-0 ( 8-8 to 11-0) VIII 17-0 to 18-0 ( 8-10 to 12-7) IX 18-0 to 18-9 ( 9-9 to 13-0) sX 18-9 to 19-6 (10-9 to 14-9) MINIMUM MAXIMUM MEDIAN MODE (60%) Mental Age 6-0 19-6 15-7* 11-4 to 18-0 Intelligence Quot. 131.4 194.2 153.1 147.2 to 168.7 I 3-11 to 6-0 II 6-1 to 7-3 III 7-3 to 8-10 IV 8-11 to 9-4 V 9-5 to 9-9 VI 9-9 to 10-2 VII 10-2 to 10-9 VIII 10-9 to 11-5 IX 11-5 to 12-8 X 12-10 to 14-9 131.4 to 141.6 (10-5 to 14-9) 141.7 to 174.2 ( 6-0 to 13-3) 147.2 to 150 ( 4-11 to 1,3-2) 150-151.1 ( 4-2 to 11-11) 151.3 to 153.1 ( 3-11 to 12-0) 153.2 to 156.2 ( 5-4 to 12-6) 156.3 to 160.1 ( 5-9 to 11-5) 161 to 168.7 ( 4-11 to 10-11) 169 to 175 ( 3-11 to 10-6) 176.3 to 194.2 ( 8-8 to 10-9) AN ANALYTICAL STUDY 71 BINET TEST Decile Limits VOCABULARY Decile Vocabulary Age Range I 0-27 3-11 to 6-9 II 30-36 5-4 to 8-11 III 36-43 6-4 to 11-0 IV 44-47 7-11 to 10-10 V 48-52 9-3 to 11-9 VI 52-54 8-11 to 11-9 VII 54-56 8-5 to 12-10 VIII 56-61 8-11 to 13-4 IX 66-70 9-6 to 13-0 X 76-88 10-9 to 14-9 MINIMUM MAXIMUM MEDIAN MODE (60%) Vocabulary 0 88 52 36-61 Standard scores (Terman) 8 year level?20 14 year level?50 10 year level?30 Av. adult ?65 12 year level?40 Super adult?75 MAZE A DECILE LIMITS Six Year Level Only First Trial Second Trial Decile Time Seconds C.A. Range Decile Time C.A. Range Seconds 18-20 6-3 to 7-11 I 12-13 6-6 to 7-11 22-22 7-1 to 7-11 II 14-15 6-5 to 7-2 26-28 4-11 to 6-5 III 16-18 5-7 to 7-9 I II III *V 34-37 5-7 to 8-5 IV 23-24 4-11 to 6-11 X. 40-49 6-0 to 8-1 V 24-25 6-1 to 7-4 54-81 4-11 to 5?4 VI 25-34 4-11 to 8-1 85-110 5-9 to 7-9 VII 40-77 4-6 to 8-5 /J11 115-144 6-6 to 7-3 VIII 85-95 * 3-11 to 6-9 Pt 170-253 3-11 to 4-6 IX 105-170 3-11 to 7-3 X 261+F(2) 4-2 to 6-9 X 295-295 4-2 to 6-11 +F(1) MAXIMUM MINIMUM MEDIAN MODE (60%) J?T- 262 (F2) 18 49 26-144 Second T. 295 (Fl) 12 25 16-95 32 cases 72 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC WOODWORTH AND WELLS HARD DIRECTIONS DECILE LIMITS Decile Score Air Range Decile Time Age Range I 9-16 (7-3 to 13-4) I 88-134 (9-5 to 14-9) II 16-17 (8-8 to 14-2) II 137-174 (10-1 to 14-0) III 17-18 (7-4 to 14-7) III 177-201 (8-8 to 14-2) IV 18-18 (9-5 to 10-11) IV 204-221 (8-11 to 12-5) V 18-19 (6-11 to 14-0) V 223-240 (9-4 to 12-0) VI 19-19 (10-11 to 12-10) VI 240-255 (6-11 to 12-10) VII 19-19 (9-6 to 10-4) VII 258-284 (9-5 to 12-6) VIII 19-20 (7-1 to 14-9) VIII 286-315 (7-1 to 11-2) IX 20-20 (10-2 to 12-7) IX 317-354 (7-11 to 11-9) X 20-20 (8-1 to 10-1) X 372-485 (7-4 to 10-9) MAXIMUM MINIMUM MEDIAN MODE (60%) Score 20 9 19 17-20 Time 485 88 240 177-315 96 cases. MONROE SILENT READING DECILE LIMITS Decile Rate Age Range Decile Compre- Age Range hension I 43-69 ( 7-1 to 11-9) I 5-14 (6-11 to 11-9) II 69-81 ( 6-11 to 12-5) II 15-16 (7-1 to 10-7) III 81-81 ( 8-11 to 10-2) III 17-19 (8-1 to 11-2) IV 81-98 ( 8-5 to 11-5) IV 19-21 (8-11 to 12-5) V 98-98 ( 7-11 to 10-0) V 21^24 (7-11 to 10-11) VI 98-108 ( 7-4 to 14-0) VI 25-29 (8-8 to 14-0) VII 108-133 ( 9-4 to 12-6) VII 29-33 (9-1 to 12-2) VIII 133-146 ( 8-1 to 14-9) VIII 34-40 (8-9 to 13-3) IX 146-146 (11-11 to 13-2) IX 41-42 (8-10 to 14-9) X 146-146 ( 7-11 to 11-11) X 42-45 (9-5 to 14-1) MAXIMUM MINIMUM MEDIAN MODE (60%) Rate 146 43 98 81-146 Comprehension 45 5 24 17-40 96 cases. AN ANALYTICAL STUDY 78 FIFTEEN YEAR ARITHMETIC DECILE LIMITS decile Score Age Range Decile Time Age Range II ^ III IV V VI VII VIII IX X 4-4 4-5 5-5 5-6 6-6 6-7 7-7 7-7 7-8 8-5 to 12-10) I 153-230 (9-3 to 14-9) 9-6 to 12-2) II 239-310 (9-4 to 14-1) 8-1 to 14-2) HI 315-366 (8-9 to 13-0) 9-4 to 11-5) IV 370-455 (8-8 to 12-10) 8-11 to 13-3) V 463-585 (8-10 to 14-0) 9-5 to 10-6) VI 590-682 (8-1 to 12-6) 8-10 to 14-9) VII 686-892 (9-1 to 11-2) 10-6 to 12-10) VIII 900-960 (8-8 to 10-7) 9-0 to 10-2) IX 966-1251 (9-5 to 14-2) 8-8 to 13-4) X 1320-2002 (8-5 to 11-9) MAXIMUM MINIMUM MEDIAN MODE (60%) 8 16 4-7 Score TilIle 2002 153 585 315-960 30 Cases unable to do test. ^rd grade proficiency?6 cases Qd grade proficiency?4 cases grade proficiency?9 cases 90 Cases did test. WITMER FORMBOARD DECILE LIMITS Six Year Level Only FIRST TRIAL SECOND TRIAL Decile Time C.A. Range Decile Time C.A. Range seconds seconds I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX 21-25 5-7 to 6-11 I 16-20 5-9 to 7-9 25-25 7-1 to 7-9 II 20-20 7-3 to 8-5 26-26 7-3 to 7-11 III 21-22 5-7 to 7-11 30-32 6-6 to 8-5 IV 22-23 6-1 to 7-11 33-34 6-5 to 8-1 V 24-26 4-11 to 7-3 35-37 6-1 to 6-11 VI 29-31 4-11 to 6-9 38-42 4-11 to 6-9 VII 32-32 4-6 to 6-4 44-50 4-11 to 5-4 VIII 32-34 4-11 to 7-4 50-59 5-9 to 6-4 IX 37-42 5-9 to 6-9 76-197 3-11 to 4-2 X 43-75 3-11 to 4-2 . , MAXIMUM MINIMUM MEDIAN MODE (60%) 2^, 21 34 26-50 ? Ial 75 16 26 21-34 32 cases 74 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC WITMER CYLINDERS DECILE LIMITS 1st Trial Seconds Age Range 2nd Trial Seconds Age Range I 27-47 (9-5 to 14-9) I 25-38 (8-11 to 14-9) II 50-55 (7-9 to 14-7) II 39-47 (7-9 to 13^) III 56-62 (7-11 to 12-6) III 47-51 (8-8 to 12-10) IV 63-67 (9-0 to 13-4) IV 51-54 (7-9 to 14-7) V 68-80 (5-7 to 11-1) V 54-59 (6-11 to 13-2) VI 82-93 (7-2 to 11-11) VI 60-64 (4-11 to 12-7) VIII 94-105 (6-0 to 14-2) VII 64-73 (9-4 to 14-1) VIII 107-134 (4-11 to 11-3) VIII- 75-91 (4-11 to 14-2) IX 135-180 (4-6 to 10-7) IX 91-122 (4-6 to 10-2) X 185-240 (3-11 to 12-10) X 135-303 (3-11 to 10-7) +F< +F3 MAXIMUM MINIMUM MEDIAN MODE (60%) 1st Trial 240+F4 27 80 56-134 2nd Trial 303+F3 25 59 47-91 DEARBORN DECILE LIMITS 1st Trial Seconds Age Range 2nd Trial Seconds Age Range I 34-66 (9-3 to 14-9) I 23-45 (6-11 to 14-9) II 70-95 (7-1 to 14-1) II 45-49 (7-9 to 14-2) III 100-110 (8-8 to 12-10) III 52-56 (7-1 to 14-1) IV 110-135 (8-8 to 14-2) IV 56-70 (7-3 to 12-10) V 140-165 (6-6 to 14-0) V 70-85 (6-6 to 14-0) VI 167-200 (6-5 to 12-0) VI 85-96 (6-5 to 12-3) VII 201-234 (6-1 to 13-0) VII 100-125 (5-4 to 13-2) VIII 240-340 (6-11 to 11-5) VIII 125-175 (6-1 to 11-9) IX 350-501 (4-11 to 12-2) IX 180-290 (4-11 to 11-9) X 510-566 (3-11 to 10-11) X 295-502 (3?11 to 6-4) -fF10 +F10 MAXIMUM MINIMUM MEDIAN MODE (60%) 1st Trial 566+F10 34 165 100-340 2nd Trial 502+F10 23 85 52-175 Distribution showing inter-decile age range?sex not considered. AN ANALYTICAL STUDY 75 MAZE C DECILE LIMITS 1st Trial Seconds Age limits 2nd Trial Seconds Age limits I 39-85 (7-2 to 14-7) I 25-42 9-3 to 14-9 II 94-122 (6-6 to 14-2) II 42-51 6-5 to 14-1 III 122-136 (8-9 to 14-9) III 53-59 7-11 to 14-2 IV 145-180 (7-11 to 13-3) IV 61-69 7-2 to 12-10 V 180-209 (6-9 to 14-1) V 72-83 5-9 to 12-10 VI 220-265 (9-0 to 13-4) VI 84-95 8-11 to 14-0 VII 265-360 (6-1 to 11-0) VII 97-147 7-3 to 11-5 VIH 362-495 (4-11 to 10-11) VIII 150-198 6-6 to 11-5 1X 498-565 (3-11 to 9-5) IX 201-534 4-11 to 10-10 + F8 x F-F12 (5-9 to 11-5) X F-F12 3-11 to 9-120 cases F MAXIMUM MINIMUM MEDIAN MODE (60%) lst Trial 565+F20 39 209 122-495 2nd Trial 534+F12 25 83 53-198 MEMORY SPAN DECILE LIMITS AUDITORY VISUAL Decile Digits Age Range Decile Digits Age Range J, 4-6 3-11 to 10-11 I 0-5 3-11 to 6-5 II III 6-7 5-9 to 14-2 II 6-7 4-11 to 12-10 7-8 4-2 to 14-0 III 7-8 6-11 to 13-0 8-8 10-11 to 12-10 IV 8-8 10-1 to 11-9 8-8 10-1 to 10-11 V 8-8 9-5 to 10-1 8-8 9-6 to 10-0 V’ 8-8 7-4 to 9-1 8-8 8-9 to 9-6 VII 8-9 6-4 to 14-2 yHl 8-9 5-7 to 14-1 VIII 9-9 9-9 to 11-5 9-9 9-3 to 13-3 IX 9-10 7-9 to 14-9 9-10 7-9 to 14-9 X 10-10 8-9 to 14-0 MAXIMUM MINIMUM MEDIAN MODE (60%) Auditory 10 4 8 7-9 Visual 10 0 8 7-9 VI VII IX X 76 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC MEMORY SPAN DECILE LIMITS Learning Span Reverse Span Decile Repetitions Age Range Decile Digits Age Range I 0-2 ( 4-11 to 14-9) I 0-3 4-2 to 6-11 II 2-2 ( 6-4 to 9-9) II 3-4 3-11 to 11-9 III 2-2 ( 9-9 to 10-11) III 4-5 4-11 to 12-10 IV 2-2 (11-0 to 13-4) IV 5-5 7-2 to 10-11 V 2-3 ( 3-11 to 14-1) V 5-6 6-11 to 12-2 VI 3-3 ( 9-8 to 10-11) VI 6-6 8-11 to 10-2 VII 3-4 ( 4-11 to 14-2) VII 6-7 7-9 to 14-9 VIII 4-5 ( 5-9 to 12-5) VIII 7-7 11-9 to 13-2 IX 5-7 ( 4-6 to 11-5) IX 7-7 9-10 to 11-5 X 7-F10 ( 3-11 to 14-0) X 7-7 8-8 to 9-10 5 cases F10 ( 3-11 to 11-2) MAXIMUM MINIMUM MEDIAN MODE (60%) Learning Sp. F10 ? 3 2-5 Reverse Span 7 -0 6 4-7 (Did not give learning test if subject repeated 10 digits) MEMORY SPAN DECILE LIMITS Memory Span for Syllables Decile Syllables Age Range I 13-20 (3-11 to 9-5) II 20-22 (5-7 to 12-10) III 22-23 (5-4 to 13-4) IV 23-24 (8-11 to 12-10) V 24-26 (6-4 to 12-5) VI 26-26 (8-8 to 11-9) VII 26-28 (8-1 to 11-9) VIII 28-29 (8-8 to 14-2) IX 29-29 (7-9 to 14-2) X 30-35 (8-10 to 14-7) MAXIMUM MINIMUM MEDIAN MODE (60%) Syllables 35 12 26 22-29

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