A Comparative Study of 100 Italian Children at the Six-Year Level
- Author:
Kathryn Ewart Serota, M.A.
New York City, N.Y.
In making an investigation of five hundred first grade children, Dr Easby-Grave included one hundred children from an Italian section of Philadelphia. As nearly as we could ascertain, all of the parents of these children, and three of the children themselves, were born in Italy. We found these children very different from the remaining four hundred. This, coupled with the interesting results reported by several other investigators in this field, led to an analysis of the abilities and defects of this group, and a comparison with the norms of the six-year level which have been compiled.
Background
A study of these children, to be complete, should begin in the days of “the grandeur that was Rome.” In their dark eyes one may read the story of an old world civilization, which does not fit America of 1926, and which flames up only as some talented member of the group gives to us some tangible expression in a painting, a piece of statuary, or in music.
But, linked with the stream of heredity, we find also the environment of a “Little Italy,” with all its life and color. Little winding streets of shops invite one to roam about. Here one may purchase brown Italian cakes, huge crusty loaves of bread, dried octopi, looking rather forlorn as they hang by one claw. Temptingly spread out on the curb markets are many strange green vegetables, freshly sprinkled. Perhaps these things interest you, but you pass on because you do not know how to cook them. Step into one of the many restaurants and have a delicious Italian luncheon; the proprietor will explain all the mysteries to you in broken English, aided by copious gesture.
Here in this colorful environment, the women, with their short full skirts and bright kerchiefs, gossip at the windows as they look to see if Tony and Angela and the newest baby are keeping the peace. The children themselves sprawl about on street or pavement, and the air is filled with the musical chatter of a foreign tongue. All about they are speaking Italian, with now and then an English word or phrase. You wonder if this can possibly be a part of your staid and quiet city.
The emotional tone of the community is one of volatile spirits. Men, women and children are quick to laugh and sing, quick to chastise and quick to fight. Here a fight is an absorbing event to be watched with interest; if it ends in a fatality, the neighborhood shrugs its expressive shoulders and turns again to its work. The cultural status of the group is difficult to determine, because it is entirely foreign. There is a love of the beautiful and the artistic that would be entirely lacking in an American neighborhood of equal economic status. This is linked with an amazing disregard of the laws of sanitation, which gives the visitor an impression which is not justified by an inquiry into the general mode of life of this community. The children reared in the midst of such diverse standards conform to them with no thought of the standards that prevail outside the group.
Somewhere between the ages of four and eight, these children set forth upon an adventure?they go to school. Here everything is different. Instead of the free run of the neighborhood, as well as of their own homes, the children find themselves obliged to sit in a small desk, surrounded by other desks which almost fill the room. Even old playmates seem unfamiliar in the new situation. A teacher stands at the front of the room?a teacher who talks and gestures. She speaks in a foreign language to these little tots, who understand her only through her gestures.
Gradually, the little Italians become familiar with the English language. They learn that for certain things?such as reading spelling, and stories?one must use English, while for the common things of home and street, one must use Italian. Thus the one hundred children included in this study are in the primary stage of bi-lingualism. They are learning, too, that there is one set of ethics at home and another at school. Much of the Italian child’s first year at school is spent in learning that the mother’s quick, hard smack and subsequent caress is quite different from the teacher’s cold disapproval. They find also that mother may be disobeyed with impunity if they are quick to dodge her, but that teacher usually wins in the battle of wits. The hard lesson of conformity to the school standards rather than the family standards is presented for the first time, and the child makes his adjustment with difficulty in his first year of school life. Here, then, we have 100 little Italian-Americans who live in a world of conflicting languages, customs and ethics. It is only in the light of their heredity, their home environment and their school environment, that we can judge accurately of their mental and social output.
Examination
The total examination required from forty-five to sixty minutes per pupil, and was divided into four main parts; I. Social, Racial and Economic Inquiry. II. Mental Examination. III. Physical Examination. IV. School Proficiency. I. Racial, Social and Economic Inquiry. The inquiry into the racial, social and economic background included where child and parent were born, the occupation of the parent, and, when possible, a visit to the home. II. Mental Examination. The tests used in the mental examination were the same as those used by Dr Easby-Grave in her investigation of the six-year level. A full discussion of these tests, and of the proceedure which she used, is given in her article.1 The Witmer Formboard, Witmer Cylinders, and Young’s Slot Maze “A” were the performance tests used, a first and second trial being given for each test. The Stanford Revision of the Binet Tests (starred tests only), and the Memory Span?Audito-vocal, Visual, Reverse, and Learning?completed the mental examination. III. Physical Exaynination. There was only a cursory physical examination, noting height, weight, cephalic index, health rating and general physical type. IV. School Proficiency. The answers to a short question or two in arithmetic, reading and spelling, with a sample of the child’s writing, served to give the examiner a knowledge of the school proficiency. In this connection, the age of entrance into school and the number of years in school were ascertained. The examinations were individual in each case, and supplemented with conversation throughout. A Witmer analytic diagnosis sheet was made for every child, which gives a picture of the qualitative side of the child’s performance. 1 Easby-Grave, Charlotte. Tests and Norms at the Six-Year Level. “The Psychological Clinic,” XV, 1925, pp. 261-300.
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF ITALIAN CHILDREN 219 Discussion of the Examination and Comparison with the Norms op the Six-Year Level Racial, Social and Economic Inquiry. The social inquiry in this investigation was of necessity somewhat inadequate. It was impossible for the examiners to visit every child and classify the social background. Several representative home visits were made and the composite picture was filled out from the children’s conversation and from observations of the neighborhood under many conditions. As has been stated, all of the fathers of the children were born in Italy. It was impossible to collect information concerning the mothers (this is not recorded on the school card), but the impression is that the mothers are less Americanized than the fathers, and it is safe to guess that they are all Italian born. Only 3% of the children are Italian born, but they have lived all of the years of their lives in an entirely Italian community where every detail of life is attended to in the Italian way: food, dress, amusement?everything is Italian. The only American person or thing in the community is the Irish policeman at the school corner! The tabulation of the occupations of the fathers throws some light upon the economic status of the group. 2% of the fathers were dead, 5% didn’t work, and the occupations of 26% were unknown to the child?making a total of 33% not placed in the economic scale.
The classification is that of Taussig,1 used by Dr EasbyGrave. Class Y includes professional men, business executives, and secondary school teachers, only 2% of the group falling in the class. Class IV consists of clerks, shop keepers, salesmen, and elementary school teachers?17% of the group were in this class (all of the individuals were shop keepers except two, who were salesmen). In class III, Taussig places all unskilled workmen, and 24%?the largest percentage?came in this class. 8% of the group were in class II?factory and mill operatives; and 16% were in class I, which is made up of untrained laborers. The largest group is Group III, which is to be expected. But, the percentage falling into Group I is too great, weighing the results toward the unskilled group. Therefore, there is a tendency toward a slightly lower economic level than that found in the population at large. A condition of this sort is often found in a foreign colony where the newest immigrants are forced into the ranks of unskilled labor because of inability to speak the language and lack of opportunity to engage in the occupation to which they have been accustomed.
Table I CLASS PERCENTAGE OCCUPATION V. 2 Artist, Chiropractor. IV. 17 Salesmen, Small business men. III. 24 Barber, Brakeman, Shoemaker, Painter, Tailor, Mechanic. II. 8 Truck driver, Factory worker. I. 16 Laborer. Unknown 26% Dead 2% Don’t work 5% Mental Examination Under the general heading of “Mental Examination,” are included three sub-headings, the Performance Tests, the Biiiet, and the Memory Span for digits, each of which was chosen with a definite purpose. The primary aim of the performance test is to investigate the intelligence of the subject, as what is for him a new problem is set before him. Three tests were used in order to obtain a well-rounded picture of the child’s performance. Formboard The Witmer Formboard?standardized at the four-year level?
was the first test presented to the children. It was most useful in giving the timid child confidence in himself. When he found that the “puzzles” were to be easy, he threw off his self-consciousness and entered into the examination with zest. Only 2.6% of the children at the six-year level of the 500 failed to pass this test in five minutes on the first trial, while 4% of the 100 Italian children failed in this time. On the second trial there were no failures in either group. In every decile division, on the first trial, except the second, the performance of the Italians fell slightly below that of the six-year group. The maximum figure, however, was 230-J-4 failures in the Italian group, as against 283+13 failures. On the second trial the Italians exceeded the six-year level in deciles 7, 8, 9, 10, with a maximum of 104 as against 259 in the larger group. The trainability index is relatively high in this group. Witmer Cylinders The Cylinders presented to the children a much more difficult problem. Approximately 50% of six-year-olds are expected to fail this test on the first trial, and true to form, 47% of each group failed. On the second trial, although the failures in the Italian group were 17% as against 12% in the six-year group, the decile divisions favored the Italian children in almost every case by a small margin. 10% in each group failed to solve the test on either trial. The test did not bring to light any noticeable difference in the performances of the two groups, and so it is dismissed without further discussion.
Slot Maze A
This is the only test in which the Italians excelled, with 13% failures on the first trial as against 17% of the six-year level, and 6% against 8% on the second trial. In deciles I, III, II, IV, V, the scores are approximately equal for both groups, on each trial; while the Italians lead on deciles VI, VII, VIII, IX, X for each trial. There is a range of 250 minutes for the first trial, 266 minutes for the second trial in the Italian group. The range widens out to 282 and 288 minutes in the six-year group.
The only explanation which can be offered for this is the innate attractiveness of the Maze. The Italian with his love of color, is keenly interested in the little blue-coated boy with his red shoe. He hears the examiner say that he may take the shoe to the boy and delightedly he undertakes the task. This, plus a spirit of self-reliance and adventure necessary for the successful completion of this test, fostered early in the large foreign family, stimulates him to his best effort.
The performance tests, taken as a whole, bring out a slight difference between the Italian child of the first grade and the general norms of the six-year level. The Italian seems to be slightly inferior. This inferiority is so slight, however, as to be negligible in a general estimate of competency. Only one explanation for the discrepancy seems possible?viz.: that even in the performance tests, there is an element of language involved. The examiner, giving the directions, uses some unfamiliar words which, in making the explanation less clear, aggravates the difficulty of the problem. The second trials show a marked improvement, due both to a better understanding of the problem and to a marked manual trainability.
TABLE II WITHER FORHBOARD WITHER CYLINDERS YOUNG’S HAZE 1st Trial 2nd Trial 1st Trial 2nd Trial 1st Trial 2nd Trial I 22-30 15-24 43-83 25-60 20-40 14-25 II 30-35 24-25 85-108 68-79 43-54 25-30 III 35-45 25-28 110-143 80-86 55-65 30-35 IV 45-47 28-32 145-199 86-105 65-80 35-40 Y 48-50 32-35 202-270 105-130 80-90 45-55 VI 50-55 35-39 277-285+7 140-155 91-105 55-70 VII 58-65 39-40 DNC 151-193 110-140 70-90 VIII 71-85 41-45 DNC 195-265 150-210 90-127 IX 90-115 45-54 DNC 277-300+7 210-290+3 130-230 X 120-230 58-104+4 DNC DNC DNC 225-280+6 Minimum 22 15 43 25 20 14 Median 50 35 270 130 90 55 Maximum 230 104 285 300 290 280 Perforhance Tests?Scores in Seconds DNC?Did not complete.
Binet Test The Binet Test was included as a means of making a rating of intellectual ability. Since intellectual ability depends almost entirely upon language and the organization of knowledge acquired through language, it seemed fitting that a test involving language be employed. In administering the test to a foreign group one discovers how much of a language test the Binet is, and also, how impossible it is to grade a foreign group upon Binet “mental age” or upon “intelligence quotient.”
Although in the decile division, the Italian children, invariably, have a greater chronological age than the six-year group, they fall below in every decile division of the mental age distribution. Thus, while having a greater chronological age, they attain a smaller mental age than the six-year group. This appears more significant when one considers the early physical development of the Italians in general, which would give them a still greater physiological age, making a great discrepancy between physiological age and mental age.
The intelligence quotients range from 51.8 to 140.0, which is a more restricted range than that of the six-year group?49.0 to 160.0. Again, 6% of the Italians fell under 70 I.Q. (Terman’s limit of feeble-mindedness) and only 2% of the six-year group went down thus far.
We find that 33% of the Italians obtained I.Q.’s of 70-90; 47%, 90-110; and 14%, 110-140, the median falling at 96.2?below the 100 mark, with 58% below 100 and 42% above. The fact that these children are at the six-year -level, and therefore have a greater opportunity for making high I.Q.’s than those at the fifteen-year level, should also be taken into consideration in interpreting the results. This is substantiated by the fact that at the general six-year level 65% of the children did obtain I.Q.’s of 100 or more, rather than the 50% that one would expect. An analysis of the Binet shows that those tests which require both the understanding and the use of language were failed more often than those which required only understanding. Thus, when it was necessary to point to a correct color or line, or merely to hold up the hand, the child was almost always able to answer, unless definitely feeble-minded. On the other hand, many children failed on the vocabulary, and in the likeness and differences, not because of a lack of ability, but because of a lack of words to use in the particular connection.
An analysis of the vocabulary presents some interesting facts: Binet Vocabulary Analysis Gown 37 Eyelasli 35 Skill 0 Tap 25 Copper 8 Ramble 0 Scorch 18 Curse 36 Civil 2 Puddle 29 Pork 29 Insure 7 Envelope 57 Outward 8 Nerve 11 Rule 68 Southern 7 Juggler 0 Health 18 Lecture 0 Regard 0 Dungeon 1 Stave 0 24 children?no vocabulary.
III. Percentage Table?Vocabulary Vocabulary Percent of Cases Vocabulary Percent of Cases 0 24 16 2 2 9 18 2 4 15 20 8 6 5 22 2 8 6 24 1 10 9 26 1 12 7 28 0 14 8 30 1 None of the children in this group defined “juggler,” the twenty-first word, nor any word occurring after it. Three words within the series?”lecture,” “skill,” and “ramble” were not defined by any children. “Dungeon” was known by one child; “civil” by two children. Seven were able to give “southern” and “insure.” “Copper” and “outward” were given by eight; “nerve” by eleven. There is quite a large jump at this point of the series?eighteen children could give “scorch” and “health.” Twenty-five were able to define “tap,” and twenty-nine gave “puddle” and “pork.” “Eyelash” was known to thirty-five, and ‘’ curse’’ to thirty-six. ‘’ Gown,’’ the first word in the list, was defined by only thirty-seven children. The two best known words were “envelope” and “rule,” defined by fifty-seven and sixtyeight, respectively. Of the children who were given the vocabulary test, 13% passed it at the eight-year level (the first age at which it appears). At the general six-year level, we find that 30% passed this test, making the point of greatest discrepancy between the results obtained with the Italians with the six-year level in general. The difference of 17%, however, is not greater than the trained examiner would expect, after the short conversation and the trouble in giving the directions for the performance tests.
Terman Revision of the Binet Tests Table IV. Chronological Age Mental Age I. Q. Deciles I. 4-8?6-1 3-6?5-6 51.8?75.0 II. 6-2?6-4 5-6?6-0 75.0?80.0 III. 6-4?6-7 6-0?6-6 80.1?83.8 IV. 6-8?6-11 6-6?6-9 85.7?90.0 Y. 7-0?7-2 6-9?6-9 90.6?96.2 YI. 7-2?7-4 6-9?7-0 96.4?100.0 VII. 7-4?7-9 7-0?7-3 100.0?102.5 VIII. 7-9?8-1 7-3?7-6 102.5?105.4 IX. 8-1?8-8 7-6?8-0 105.4?113.7 X. 8-8?10-4 8-0?9-0 117.5?140.0 Minimum 4-8 3-6 51.8 Median 7-2 6-9 96.2 Maximum 10-4 9-0 140.0
Memory Span
Four forms of memory span were used in testing these children : the audito-vocal digit, the visuo-vocal digit, the reverse digit, and the learning span for digits. As was the case in the six-year level, the visual span usually fell one below the auditory span. The explanation given by Dr Easby-Grave is that children are not familiar with numbers in the first grade; the mere mechanics of reading them absorbs all of their attention. The curriculum of the first grades usually takes this into consideration.
Audit o-Vocal:
6% of the Italian group had a span of 3, and one child refused to give any span. At the six-year level, 4% of the group gave only 3. 68% of the children had spans of 4 or 5 (33%?4; 35%? 5). Only 3% reached 8, and none went above 8. These figures conform generally to the results of the larger group.
Visuo-Vocal:
The visuo-vocal yields somewhat different results. 20% of the Italians had no visual span; 50% had spans of 4 or 5 (26%? 4; 24%?5). This time, only 1% had a span of 8, and none exceeded this figure.
Reverse Span:
The reverse span was obviously too difficult. 54% had no reverse span, 17% had 2, 23%?3, and 6% reached 4. No one in the group went above 4. If a high reverse span is indicative of superiority (and it is conceded to be), this range (0?4) would seem to point to a lack of superiority within this group. Judged by the norms which Dr Jones1 has established, no one in the Italian group would fall in the superior group.
Learning Span:
31% of the children were unable to increase their auditory span for digits by one on ten repetitions, while only 26% of the six-year level failed to accomplish this. In the larger group, 57% increased the span one digit between two and six repetitions. The Italians show a 60% increase in the same number of repetitions. This confirms a fact which the performance tests brought out? viz.: the Italians have a good index of educability. 1 Jones, Alice M. The Superior Child. The Psychological Clinic, XVI, No. 1-2, 1925.
Memory Span Table V Percentage of Cases Span Auditory Visual Reverse Learning 0 1% 20% 54% ? 2 ? 1% 17% 3% 3 6% 16% 23% 12% 4 33% 26% 6% 17% 5 35% 24% ? 11% 6 16% ? 9% ? 13% 7 6% 3% ? 4% 8 3% 1% ? 1% 9 ? ? ? 7% 10 ? ? ? 1% F?31% Memory Span
Table YI AuditoDeciles Vocal Visual Reverse Learning I. 0?4 0?0 0?0 2?3 X. II. 4?4 0?0 0?0 3?4 IX. III. 4?4 2?3 0?0 4?4 Vni. IV. 4?4 3?4 0?0 4?5 VH. V. 5?5 4?4 0?0 5?6 VI. VI. 5?5 4?4 0?2 6?7 V. VII. 5?5 4?5 2?2 8?10?1 F. IV. Vni. 5?6 5?5 2?3 F. III. IX. 6?6 5?6 3?3 F. II. X. 6?8 6?8 3?4 F. I.
Physical Measurements The basis of judgment and comparison in this investigation has been hasting’s standard tables. Of the one hundred children included, 12% were not weighed or measured. Only 4% of the children were under-weight with 3% below minimum height. 6% were minimum weight; 6 were minimum height. 11% were median weight, while 24% were median height. At the maximum, we find 21% maximum weight, and 10 maximum height. The largest percentages in each case fell above the maximum, 46% being overweight and 45% over-height. 34 cases were both over-height and over-weight; twelve of these were boys and twenty-two were girls. This high physiological age is explainable only on the basis of racial characteristics. The Italians, of southern race, mature early and thus reach certain physiological ages, with their increments in height and weight, before the chronological ages would warrant. This should make for complexity of mental development which so often accompanies accelerated physical growth. In this group it is wanting, but whether because of the difficulties in adjustment to climate and language and customs, or to a racial tendency toward simplicity of mental organization, cannot be decided, because of the limited scope of the investigation. Cephalic Index
The cephalic indexes were divided into three classes after Kroeber:1 Dolicho-cephalic or long-headed (70-75), mesio-cephalic or medium headed (76?80), and brachy-cephalic, or round headed (81?85). Those that are over 85 are termed ” hyper-brachio cephalic.” No cephalic indexes are recorded for 16% of the cases. 7% are dolicho-cephalic, 36% are brachio-cephalic, and 5% are hyper-brachio-cephalic. Deniker2 divides the Italians (European Italians) into three classes:
1. Dark haired, dolicho-cephalic, short stature; south of the Rome-Ascoli line?(a mixed race). 2. Dark-haired, brachio-cephalic, and hyper-brachio-cephalic, short stature?south Italy?most numerous. 3. Dark-haired, mesio-cephalic, tall stature, north of Italy. Based on this classification, 7% are from the mixed race of south Italy, 36% are north Italian, and 41% are round-head south Italians. Physical Measurements Table VII. I. Cephalic Index Type Percentage of Cases Brachy-cephalic (81-85) 41% 4%?87 Mesio-cephalie (76-80) 36% 1%?89 Dolicho-cephalic (70-75) 7% Not measured 16% 1 Kroeber, A. L., 1’ Anthropology.’’ 2Deniker, Joseph, “Races of Man.” 228 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC II. Height Age Percentage of Cases Minimum Median Maximum 5 0% 1% 0% 6 2% 5% 4% 7 2% 12% 3% 8 2% 3% 1% 9 0% 1% 2% 10 0% 2% 0% Below minimum 3% Above maximum 45% 1 3% 1 33% 2 0% 2 10% 3 2% Not measured 12% 4 0% III. Weight Percentage of Cases Age Below Min. Minimum Median Maximum Above Max. 5 0 0 0 0 2 6 0 2 3 7 18 7 2 4 4 11 15 8 2 0 3 1 7 9 0 0 1 2 2 10 0 0 0 0 2 Above Maximum?46% 12% Not Weighed. Years Per cent Below Minimum?4% 1 25% Years Per cent 2 11% ‘ 1 4% 3 7% 2 0% 4 2% 3 o% 5 0% 6 1% 34 Cases Accelerated in Both Height and “Weight No. of Years Height Weight Accelerated Male Female Male Female 1 9 16 5 8 2 2 5 5 10 3 0 1 0 2 4 0 0 0 0 5 1 0 2 2
School Proficiency
Dr Easby-Grave states that the school proficiency tests “involve the child’s educability and pedagogical conformity.” With the Italian group they also involve, again, the language element. The ages of entrance into school (kindergarten or 1st grade) range from 3 to 8 years, with 65% at 5 and 6. The ages of the children at the time of examination ranged from 4 to 10 years, with 75 per cent at 6 and 7. No account was taken of the per cent repeating, but the consensus of the opinions of the teachers indicates that many had repeated one or more times.
Table VIII Age Entered School Percentage of Cases 3 3% 4 6% 5 26% 6 39% 7 15% 8 5% Entered from other schools 6% Table IX Chronological Age Percentage of Cases (at time of examination) 4 1% 5 3% 6 36% 7 39% 8 15% 9 4% 10 2%
Of the total number of children more than 50% were proficient in Arithmetic and Writing, while less than 50% were proficient in Reading and Spelling. Thus again we are faced with the language difficulty. While all the subjects require an understanding of language, it is in those which are definitely language subjects that the Italians fail. Turning to Table XI we find that there is a difference in the proficiency of the A and B class. In the A class more than 50% are deficient in Reading, Arithmetic and Spelling. They are proficient only in writing or copying letters. These children have been in school from one to five months. In the B class (in school from five to ten months), the opposite is true; more than 50% are proficient in each subject: the greatest deficiency in both A and B occurs in reading and spelling, the language subjects.
Table X Reading 44% proficient 56% deficient Writing 79% proficient 21% deficient Arithmetic 64% proficient 36% deficient Spelling 38% proficient 62% deficient Table XI School Proficiency in A and B Class Proficient Deficient A B A B Reading 28% 72% 72% 28% Writing 69% 97% 33% 3% Arithmetic 48% 92% 52% 8% Spelling 23% 64% 77% 36% Note: Total?100 children?A class, 64 children B class, 36 children Conclusions
1. The 100 Italian children are not inferior to the general intelligence1 norms compiled from the examination of 500 first grade children. This is brought out by the results of the performance tests. 2. The findings indicate inferior intellectuality,2 due to language handicap. It is difficult to say whether this handicap exists only when the attempt to measure intellect is made in English, or whether it is primarily referable to the fact that their English content is restricted. Root3 thinks that language does not play a prominent part in the rating of general competency, but the clinical examination of the 100 cases in this investigation and an analysis of the results of the Binet point to a definite language handicap.
The educability level is not lower than that of the sixyear old.
4. The trainability level is slightly higher in the Italian group than in the larger group. 5. The physical condition of the group is relatively good, and there is a tendency toward high physiological age. x Intelligence is defined by Dr Witmer as the ability to solve what is for the individual a new problem. 3 Intellect is defined by Dr Witmer as the acquisition, organization, retention and use of knowledge. * Gardini and Root?A Study of Italian Children. The Psych. Clinic, Vol. 15, No. 3-4, May and June, 1923. Summary of Conclusions The 100 Italian children included in this investigation are neither inferior nor superior in intelligence and educability to the six-year group. They are inferior in intellectual ability, undoubtedly dependent upon language equipment and they are superior in trainability and physical growth. Bibliography Deniker, Joseph, Races of Man. London, Scott, 1904. Easby-Grave, Charlotte, Tests and Norms at the Six-Year Level. Psycii. Clinic, 1925, XY. Gardini, G., and Boot, W. T., Comparison of the Detroit First Grade Tests Given in Italian and English. Psych. Clin., 1923, 3-4, 101-108. Hastings, W. H., Manual for Physical Measurements. Y.M.C.A. Press, Springfield, Mass., 1902. Ide, G. G., The Educability Level. Psycii. Clin., 1919, 13, 179-195. Ide, G. G., The Educability Level of Five-Year-Old Children. Psych. Clin., 1920, 13, 146-172. Jones, Alice M., The Diagnosis and Measurement of Relative Superiority. Psych. Clin., XVI, 1925. Kroeber, Alfred L., Anthropology. N.Y., Marcourt, 1923. Taussig, F. W., Principles of Economics. N.Y., Macmillan, 1912. Terman, L. M., Measurement of Intelligence. Houghton, Mifflin Co., 1916. Witmer, Lightner, Reference Boole in Clinical Psychology and Diagnostic Teaching. Psych. Clin., Vol. XII, Nos. 5-9, p. 145-170.
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