The Psychological Examination of Interests for Guidance
- Author:
Douglas Fryer
Associate Professor of Psychology, New York University The practical worker in clinic or guidance bureau has longrecognized the existence of a factor in human adjustment which he has called interest. There has been a considerable period of scientific description of this factor. Recently, within the last ten years in fact, interests have been submitted to measurement. Such measurement of interests gives every promise of contributing to the happy and efficient adjustment of the individual. The day of contented reliance upon judgements of interests alone is past.
However, there is still a place for the judgment of interests, as there may always be. An analogy between the psychological examination of interests and the psychological examination of abilities may be drawn. The clinical psychologist believes that a psychological examination of abilities is incomplete without rating scales and qualitative judgments. He would administer all possible tests and measures in the field of abilities being measured. To these he would add the practical estimates of the interview and the rating scale. So, too, the clinical psychologist would administer tests and measures of interests and add to his results the judgments of the Subject under examination, and those of his employer, teacher, parents, and friends.
A psychological examination of interests, then, would include data from all possible sources: the results of information tests, the results of free association tests, the inventory measures, and in addition, the judgment of leading interests from various sources. All results of the psychological examination of interests would be viewed in their relation. The best prediction in the psychological examination of interests lies where there is agreement between tests and judgments of interests.
The Role of Judgment in the Psychological Examination op Interests
The role of judgment in the estimation of interests is fairly familiar to every one. Judgments are collected from friends, em’Address delivered at the aimual meeting of the National Vocational Guidance Association, Atlantic City, Feb. 20-22, 1930. ployer, teacher, parents, and from the individual himself. Probably the source of judgment most widely used is the Subject under examination.
Various devices have been prepared to inform the Subject, so that he may be better prepared to make a judgment of his interests. These orientation devices are found in every vocational guidance clinic, and, though similar, are usually adapted to a local situation. Frank Parson’s book, “Choosing A Vocation,” is an early illustration of such an orientation device. A widely used questionnaire to assist the Subject in organizing his information in making an interest judgment is J. B. Miner’s “Analysis of Work Interests.’ ‘2 The validity of the interest judgment has also been improved by the rating scale. In Kitson’s Rating Scale for Teachers,3 for instance, the teaching interest is compared for rating with other professional interests. The teacher is asked to rate the teaching vocation, in which he is working, on a point scale of numerical value. He is asked to choose a vocation of greatest interest, a vocation of second interest, and so on, and then to give the point value of the vocation in which he is working.
The Use of Psychological Measures of Interests The Interest Inventory The inventory represents the leading attempt at measurement to secure an estimate of subjective interests. The inventory is a sample of all distinctive interests: occupations, activities of people, amusements, sports, social organizations, and so on. The Subject describes his feeling attitude in qualitative terms of like, dislike, and indifference, although the intensity of these qualities is sometimes rated. The introspective report of the feeling quality is devoid of judgment. There is no comparison. There is only a report of feeling. Having expressed these various interests a score can be given the Subject. The score is the relation of the interests expressed in the Subject’s inventory to the interests of members of a certain social or occupational group. Scoring keys have been developed for 2 “Analysis of Work Interests,” a four-page folder, distributed by C. H. Stoelting Company, Chicago, Illinois.
‘Kitson, II. D.: Measuring the Interests of TeacJiers in Their Work. Teachers’ College Record, 1928, XXX, 28-33.
approximately twenty professions and occupational groups by E. K. Strong to be used with his inventory, the Vocational Interest Blank.4 The scoring key for each occupation scores high the interests which have been found to be common to individuals in that occupation. With these scoring keys the clinician is able to tell whether or not the Subject has the interests common to members of a certain profession, and the extent to which these are present. In the scoring key each interest item of the inventory is assigned a numerical value. These values arc assembled and compared with the records of other individuals in the occupational group. Thus, the degree of interest which the Subject has in an occupation can be determined. A similar comparison can be made for any occupation for which there is a scoring key. While the inventory is a measurement device to investigate subjective interests, it also orients the Subject, through its long list of items, and hence improves his qualitative judgment of his own interests. It is the best single measuring device by which to examine subjective interests. But it has its limitations. The less valid estimates of teachers, parents, counselors, and so on, can add to our knowledge of subjective interests in the psychological examination.
Information Tests of Interests
Objective interests represent a field of interest expression almost entirely neglected even in the psychological examination by the best clinics and guidance bureaus. Interests have not been described objectively by the practical worker. They have, however, been thought to have some relation to the amount of superficial information or knowledge when tested in various fields of expression. If the psychological examiner has the clinical point of view, in his examination of interests, he will tap in all possible sources, and he will not neglect an attempt to measure what arc thought of as objective interests, whatever their relation may be to subjective interests.
4 The Vocational Interest Blank by E. K. Strong is distributed by the Stanford University Press, Stanford, California. Scoring keys for the following occupations are 011 sale: advertiser, architect, artist, chemist, engineer, fanner, journalist (newspaper editor), lawyer, life insurance salesman, medical man, minister, personnel man, psychologist, public accountant, purchasing agent, real estate salesman, school teacher and administrator, vacuum cleaner salesman, Y.M.C.A. secretary. Tests of information, for the purpose of indicating objective interests, have been prepared to measure information in certain specialized fields, for example in the field of mechanics, in professional fields, etc. They test information by true-false answers, by multiple choice, and by the completion methods. The interest score is the amount of information in the field being measured. Standards of comparison for ages and training have been developed. The measure is objective throughout. Representative of this attempt to measure objective interests through the agency of the information test are Ream’s Social Relations Test,5 O’Rourke’s Mechanical Aptitude Test,0 Toops’ Mechanical Information Test for t J iris,7 and McIIale’s Occupational Information Test for College Women.8 None of these information tests show a high correlation with subjective interests, but, as indicated above, they represent a new field of interest expression not heretofore measured in the psychological examination.
Association Tests in the Measurement of Interests
The objective test most highly thought of as a measure of interests is one employing the free association method, in which the Subject is asked to respond, when the stimulus word is given, with the first word that comes to mind. This test is the result of the work upon gifted children at Stanford University by Jessie Wyman Pilcher. The Wyman Free Association Test of Interests is scored the same as the Interest Inventory. The free associations are compared, by means of a scoring key, with those of a picked group. Wyman has developed scoring keys for Intellectual, Social, and Activity Interests.9 5Ream, M. J.: A Social Relations Test. J. of App. Psychol., 1922, VI, G9-73. ” Distributed by Educational and Personnel Publishing Company, Washington, D.C. ‘ Toops, Herbert A.: Tests for Vocational Guidance of Children Thirteen to Sixteen. Teachers’ College, Columbia University, Contributions to Education No. 13G, Now York, 1923, 159 p. h McIIale, Katiiryn : An Experimental Study of J ocational Interests of a Liberal Arts College. J. of App. Psychol., 1924, VIII, 245-255. ? See Terman, L. M. et al: Mental and Physical Traits of a Thousand Gifted Children, Vol. I, Genetic Studies of Genius, Chap. XVI (455-483) “lests of Intellectual, Social, and Activity Interests” by Jessie B. Wyman. Stanford University Press, 1925. Scoring keys arc unpublished.
Experimental Devices Undergoing Development
The interest inventory with occupational scoring keys, the information tests for various fields of activities, and the Wyman Free Association Test would all seem to be useful measures in the psychological examination of interests. But there are other experimental devices which are in the process of development, with various degrees of promise. A unique development of the interest inventory is under way at Oberlin College. Here, Hartson and Brentlinger are working with interest activities rather than with the objects of interest. Another, similar investigation, by P. P. Brainard10 is under way at the University of Michigan. The purpose is to use functional interest groups in the professions and occupations as the units of vocational adjustment.
The early efforts11 to score the interest inventory for success and failure have been continued at the University of Minnesota? in this case for success and failure in college work. Donald G. Paterson and Marian M. Jacobsen have for their purpose in this study the prediction of educational achievement, insofar as interests determine success. The early work of Moore and Freyd12 upon the social-mechanical interests has also been continued at the University of Minnesota by Ruth M. Hubbard.13
At New ork University, Alfred J. Marrow is studying universal interests, to determine the degree of universality of the interests of people. The development of inventories and tests for the measurement of the interests of gifted children, the comparison of these interests with those of non-superior children, by Lewis M. Ter10 See Brainard, P. P.: Interest Tests in Vocational Guidance, Voc. Guid. Mag., 1928, VI, 150-159. “See, among others: Ream, M’. J.: Ability to Sell: Its Eelation to Certain Aspects of Personality and Experience. Baltimore, Williams and Wilkins, 1924, 64p.; Kornhauser, A. W.: Itesults from a Quantitative Questionnaire on Likes and Dislikes JJsed with a Group of College Freshmen. J. of App. Psychol., 1927, XI, 85-94. 12 Moore, B. V.: Personnel Selection of Graduate Engineers. Psychol. Mono., 1921, 30, 85 p. Freyd, Max: The Personalities of the Socially and Mechanically Inclined. Psychol. Mono., 1924, 33, Chap. III. 13 See Hubbard, Ruth M.: A Measurement of Mechanical Interests. Ped. Sem. and J. of Gen. Psychol., 1928, 35, 229-254. man and his associates, have contributed to the evaluation of measurement devices for the psychological examination.14 These arc some of the leading experimental projects aiming at measurement. One or more of these may become a valuable contribution to the psychological examination of interests. There arc, of course, other aspects to the interest problem besides their measurement in the psychological examination. There are such problems as the permanence of interests, their relation to abilities, etc., also undergoing investigation at the present time.
The Nature of Interests
For a moment let us leave the problems of measurement and examine the interests we are studying. For some years the author made it his purpose, in an attempt not to be led away into the abstract, to ask various individuals to make records of their interests. Individuals have been asked to review their interest life for some time in thought. This thinking has been stimulated by associations and by narrowing the self examination to a unified period of life. After thinking over one’s interest life it seems to be possible to sit down and write an interest history. How accurately this is done, one cannot say. The trained individual usually takes more nearly the point of view of scientific observation and includes an analysis of the interests. The detail of the interest history would appear to be an indication of its accuracy. The purpose in mentioning such retrospective study is not to draw final conclusions as to its validity, etc., but to illustrate by these autobiographies the psychological thing which we are studying.
As an example, there is the case of a man with extremely varied interests?a man who is now definitely committed to a career of college teaching. However, between the ages of thirty-five and fortyfive, after writing the interest autobiography, mentioned here, his teaching field has shifted from history into economic history and finally to economics. This man had an adventurous youth and an unorganized education, with no formal school instruction until he entered college at the age of twenty-two. This is perhaps a good environment for producing the variety of interests which he mentions in writing his interest history. “See Terman, L. M. et al: Mental and Physical Traits of a Thousand Gifted Children. Vol. I, Genetic Studies of Genius, Stanford, University Press, 1925, 648 p.
A classification of interests, taken from his history, illustrates very well what is found in many interest histories. Interests Expressed in Interest Autobiography Male, Age 37, Pli.D. Degree Mechanical 1. Took locks, guns, etc., apart when very young. 2. Early automotive “fan” during adolescence. 3. Owned one of earliest motorcycles. 4. Amateur machinist. 5. Learned locksmitliing in two weeks. Subsequently regularly employed in this trade. 6. Interested particularly in motor vehicles at age of 20. 7. Learned with high degree of skill shorthand and typing. Regularly employed at this work. 8. Mechanical engineering course taken by correspondence at age of 20. Sports 1. Desired to be explorer when very young. 2. Hunting, cycling, and “bumming” during adolescence. 3. Cycle and motorcycle racer at age of 20, with success. 4. Mechanic on racing car. 5. Traveled in Europe at 25. Musical 1. Enjoyed music from birth. 2. Played violin by ear. Remedial 1. Wished to “help world” at age of 25. Scientific 1. Biology and zoology at age of 30. 2. “Society as a science” at age of 30. Linguistic 1. Read romances and mild philosophy when 7 or 8. 2. Memorized verse copiously during adolescence. 3. Fond of English classics during adolescence. 4. Read German early. 5. Enjoyed Latin fairly well. (Liked Latin sounds.) G. At age of 25 believed he had high literary ability. 7. Read widely in literature during college at age of 25. 8. Read biography at age of 30. Personality 1. Older brother stimulated reading when very young. 2. Tutored in various subjects from 11 to 16. PSYCHOLOGICAL EXAMINATION 41 3. Older brother mentioned as influence toward systematic education at age of 20. 4. Enjoyed floating laborers and “bums” at age of 20. 5. Brother contemptuous of classics. G. Friendship of president of college stirred interest in classics at ago of 25. 7. Friendship of president of college secured accidental job in history at age of 27. 8. Through biology professor became interested in biolog}. 9. Positive influence of professor upon interest in sociology. 10. Brother interested in sociology. Aversions 1. Going to elementary school. 2. Took and passed secondary school examinations and never entered. 3. ‘’ Home life unsatisfactory?fled.’’
A more fundamental general interest stands out in this genetic history, besides these detailed interests specifically mentioned. It is one that seems to include many of the detailed interests. It is the interest in personality situations which guarantee him social importance. The Subject was precocious in literary pursuits because of the “influence of older brother.” He took examinations for secondary school and passed them, but did not go to secondary school because (interpretation) he was 16 years old and older than the average. His interest in a literary career was “perhaps way of being great some time.” But he adds he has “no notion of making a living that way.” This interest in situations giving him social recognition is probably reflected in the interest in memorizing verse, in cycle and motorcycle racing and to some degree in “bumming. The Subject seems to have a strong interest in being different, which developed very early in a disorganized home and educational environment. lie “ate up course” in college. He did not continue Latin because his brother was “contemptuous of classics.” His social success in linguistics?in quoting literature, in repeating verse, in conversation, in learning languages, in conversing in foreign languages?led him at the age of 25 to have a “belief in his literary ability.” lie did not try to make any practical use of it, but he felt he had it.
His brother, who became an economist, represents the personality interest which led the Subject into science. This interest was fostered by other personality influences?the president of a college, the professor of biology, and the professor of sociology. AN itliout these personality influences, it is easy to conceive that the mechanical interests might have kept this man in some occupation requiring skilled work with his hands?his wider interests being satisfied by reading and discussion. As it is, his occupation is confined to dealing with ideas, and his abilities with and interest in concrete things are utilized only avocationally and occasionally. Such a combination of interests would seem to point to a laboratory science as a satisfactory combination of activities, but actually, the movement from biology to non-laboratory sciences was prompt, by reason of definite bias toward the philosophical meanings of things and the possibilities of social recognition through his verbal abilities. It is impossible to read this interest history and conclude that this man must have arrived at his present occupation if he was to be satisfactorily adjusted. He could have entered, it would seem, any one of several occupations, and achieved a perfectly satisfactory occupational life. Nevertheless, this detailed story of many interests shows a certain continuity. Interests grew on the basis of what had gone before; it seems that they would not have been what they were had the soil been different. Nevertheless, any prognosis in the case of this man in earlier years would have been extremely difficult. Many possibilities were before him. External circumstances, what he calls “accidents,” made the determination among the possibilities inherent in his own developing personality. In closing this discussion of the nature of the interests we come face to face with a practical moral. The enormous specificity of interests in the individual is astonishing. The psychological examiner who judges the interests of a Subject in fifteen minutes of an interview, such as is most usually given over to the study of this aspect of mental life, is doing little more than the child who tries to collect all the pebbles on the beach and take them home with him. Much better it would be to accept the estimate offered by the Subject. An analysis of the nature of interests leads us to the conclusion that the psychological examination of interests is equal in difficulty, equal in time consumption, and equal in importance to the examination of abilities.
An Outline of A Psychological Examination of Interests The psychological examination of interests investigates personality from a certain point of view?that of the Subject’s interests. In this examination the clinician is concerned with two things: (1) with tlie genetic interest history to date of examination and (2) with a cross-section study of present interests.
The Genetic Interest History
Ideally, the genetic interest history would be a part of the developmental record of the individual, from babyhood, throughout childhood and adolescence, into adulthood. Providing an interest history has been kept, the cross-section study is simply a process of bringing this record up to date. But few interest records are now kept by parents or teachers. We are just being educated to keep cumulative records of abilities. To add to this a cumulative record of interests is perhaps the next step in understanding the development of an individual.
In the usual work of a clinic today the genetic interest history is assembled at the same time as the cross-section study of present interests is made. By interview and questionnaire methods, past interests are recalled and pieced together into a genetic interest history. This record has but little of the authority of the record kept throughout the period of development, but a genetic history of interests is absolutely necessary to the understanding of interest trends, and it should always be made out in the psychological examination of interests.
The genetic history includes a record of interests in all fields. These may be summarized for practical purposes, under the headings of vocational, educational, and social. It should reach back into earliest memories and extend to the time of the present study. If made out in retrospect, by interview or questionnaire method, the genetic history perhaps can best be handled by centering the attention of the individual upon definite developmental periods, for example: (1) earliest recollections, (2) entering school, (3) last years of elementary school, (4) last years of high school, (5) entering college, (G) graduation from college, (7) time of going to work, (8) years after becoming a worker. These recollections might well involve all fields of interests, although the early ones would be purely social and activity interests. It was such stimulation as this that enabled the recall of the detailed interest autobiographies mentioned above.
Cross-Section of Present Interests
A cross-section study of present interests involves the use of all available measures and rating-scales of interests. It is well to err here in testing too much instead of too little. If time permits the use of only one measure, Strong’s Vocational Interest Blank is undoubtedly the best one for vocational purposes.
The interest inventory has other uses in the psychological examination than that of measurement. A survey of the items marked in the inventory will suggest trends of interests. Where there is continual indifference or dislike of people, this will show in the markings of the inventory. “Where there is preference for scientific subjects, this can be gathered from a brief review of the blank. The interview is a part of the cross-section study. The work of the interview is that of securing the Subject’s “own story” of present interests. The technique of gaining the “own story” is a method of questioning which gets information without influencing the nature of that information. There are two methods. One employs direct questions, and the other gains its information through casual conversation. Both may be used with the same subject. What is wanted is information of 1. Present Enjoyments: in work, study, play, religion, reading, and so on; 2. Present Dissatisfactions (Troubles) : in work, study, play, religion, reading, and so on.
Information upon these topics is pieced together into the “own story.” If the same technique is used in securing the estimates from teachers, parents, and employers, as is used in studying the Sxibjcct’s interests, the validity of the interest judgment should be greatly increased.
The Interest Profile An interest profile can be of assistance in prognosis and in making recommendations. It can be made out for the several fields of interests. It is probably unwise to attempt to use the measures of interests to indicate more than three qualities of feeling in the profile: (1) an aversion, or dislike, (2) an indifference, (3) an interest, or like. The future may bring a profile in percentile grades, as in the measurement of abilities, but, today, in the measurement of interests there is probably a higher validity in allowing for greater error. This is particularly true when the results of other sources than rating scales, inventories, and tests arc included, for example: the self estimates of the “own story,” “parents’ estimates,” “friends’ estimates,” “employers’ estimates,” “teachers’ estimates,” and the estimate of the counselor from the interest autobiography. There is presented below, in the form of a chart, an interest profile of a hypothetical Subject, John Doe. Strong likes and dislikes are marked with an asterisk (#). The interests of John Doe are classified into the three major fields of activity:? Educational, Vocational, and Social. The source of the information for John Doe’s interests is indicated for each item.
Interests Profile of John Doe June 1, 1929 Sex: male; Age: 18; Education: Secondary School Grad.; Occupation: none Educational Interests (Likes) Indifferences Aversions (Dislikes) Name and Source Name and Source Name and Source Mathematics?Own Sty. Language?Oxen Sty. “English-?Bio. Mathematics?Bio. Science?Bio. Latin?Tch. Est. “Commercial Wk.?Tch. French?Ft. Est. Est. Sciencc?Strong Inv. Vocational Advertising?Strong lnv. Medicine?Bio. Engineering?Cowdery I n v. “Public Acct.?Strong Teaching?Strong Inv. Medicine?Cowdery Inv. Inv. Bookkeeping?Bio. Mechanics?O’Eourke Agricul. Eng.?Burtt l.T. I.T. Office Mgr.?Self-Est. Business?Self-Est. Salesman?Strong Inv. Clerical Wk.?Strong Inv. Engineering?Strong Inv. “Personnel Man?Strong Inv. Business?Fd. Est. Law?Cowdery Inv. Accountancy?Bio. Social (General) xActiv. Ite.?TVyman Social Ite.?Wyman Intellectual Ite.?H yman F.A.T. F.A.T. F.A.T. Stocks & Bonds?Bio. People?Fd. Est. “Parties?Pt. Est. “Newspaper Office?Bio. Church?Ft. Est. “People?Strong Inv. “People?Cowdery Inv. “People?Bio. Abbreviations: Autobiography (Bio.), Estimate (Est.), Free Association (I’.A.), Friend (Fd.), Information (I), Interests (Ite.), Inventory (Inv.), Own Story (Own Sty.), Parents (Ft.), Teacher (Toll.), Test (T.).
There is conflicting evidence in this profile. The measures of interests are not always consistent. This, we assume, is the fault of the measures used, which is a reason why a large number of measures should be used. However John Doe, according to this profile, shows a consistent interest in commercial subjects, commercial vocations, and commercial activities. He is averse to linguistics and people and indifferent to mechanics. Recommendations for development and prediction of trends can be made from the interest profile. In presenting this outline of the psychological examination of interests the author does not wish to give the impression that all the methods outlined are being used in any one clinic or counsel office. This is more the synthetic ideal developed on the basis of what is being done in various places in the attempt to examine interests. The Use of tiie Psychological Examination of Interests We now come to the question of what we are going to do with the results of a psychological examination of interests. The psychological examination of interests involves prognosis just as does the psychological examination of abilities. It involves prediction from the results secured. It also involves recommendations for training or rehabilitation.
The traditional use of interest judgments has been to predict future interests, present or future abilities, and success or achievement. Recommendations for developing an interested life, seem not to have been attempted.
Differences exist in the point of view of research in this field. Some investigators wish to use the inventory as a predictor of abilities?as, in fact, another measure of abilities. This attempt has failed. Specific interests are not predictors of specific abilities, although they may frequently be found together. This, of course, is unimportant when we have plenty of well-established measures of abilities.
Other investigators aim at achievement and hope to find an influence of interests upon achievement. While it would seem that this relation is present, it is not as high a relation as that found between abilities and achievement. It seems probable that interests do determine achievement slightly, and particularly over a long period of time, but the extent of this relationship is still to be determined. Abilities are correlated with achievement and success, and an adjustment of the individual according to his abilities is valuable to industry, in education, and to society, as well as to the person himself. The question is raised: “If interests are not correlated with success and achievement to a degree valuable for prediction, of what value is a measure of interests?” This question has all of the philosophy of nineteenth century efficiency behind it. A measure of interests is valuable for its own sake, to permit a more happy adjustment to life. The happiness of the individual grows out of his interests. According to some, the measurement of interests may be more valuable to the individual in his adjustment than the measure of abilities. If one were a social philosopher,?one might say that the ability measure belongs to society, the interest measure to the individual. The real value of the examination of interests lies in the measure itself. It is a measure of an aspect of personality separate from anything else. It is a measure of individual interests, morale, and potential happiness. Its essential quality is pleasant feeling. A measure of interests is valuable, not because from it we can predict abilities, not because from it we can predict achievement or success, although we may incidentally do so, but because it is a measure of the individual’s feeling life in a certain environment. A knowledge of the individual’s interests facilitates an adjustment of the individual with respect to his feeling life, just as knowledge of the individual’s abilities assists in adjustment of the individual in educational and vocational efficiency. Now we have an answer to the question: “What are we going to do with the interest examination results?” We are going to recommend an interest adjustment and an interest development, as complete as possible, within the scope of the individual’s abilities, and expect thereby that social efficiency and individual happiness may result. This is our clinical credo in the use of the interest examination.
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