Crime: Its Cause and Treatment
- Type:
Book Reviews.
- Author:
Clarence Darrow.
George Harrap & Co. London, pp. 292 10s. 6d. 1923.
“The old order changeth” and many social questions are being viewed to-day in a new light. Amongst these problems none is more prominent at the present time than that which is associated with those anti-social actions which are designated “crime.” The fact is not without significance, as evidence of a new official attitude, that several books upon the subject have been written recently by those who have been, or are, directly connected with the Prison service, notably by Sir Ruggles Brise on the English Prison System, by Dr Mary Gordon on Female Offenders, and more recently by Dr Hamblin Smith on the Psychology of the Criminal. The latest book on Crime its cause and treatment, is by an American lawyer, but “Coelum non animum mutant qui trans mare currunt,” and the problem is the same whether on this side or that side of the Atlantic. Dr Darrow opens with a discussion of the question “What is crime?” and answers it by shewing what it is not. Crime as such has no true reference to conscience or ethics, but its significance lies in the fact that it elicits a certain type of group-reaction from the rest of the community. But he goes on to point out that exactly the same type of reaction, i.e. a deprivation of liberty, is exhibited in the case of imbecility, insanity, and infectious disease. Personal liberty must end where public injury begins. Our laws have descended to us out of tribal customs which date from a time to which “the memory of man runneth not,” and are based on primitive ideas of man’s capacity and responsibility which themselves have long been superceded. Hence it has become increasingly necessary for us to change our attitude in regard to crime.
The author looks at the question from a biological standpoint, and considers the essential feature of crime to be a failure of adjustment to the ever increasing complexity ^ environment, and the relentless growth o social restrictions. Man is, as Aristo described him long ago, a social animal, an the gregarious or social instinct is one of t mainsprings of life, without which he cou scarcely have maintained his existence in past. Human actions are governed by 111 stinct and emotions and only to a small exte by Reason. Hence there arises an inevita conflict. In each one of us there abides potential criminal, and the saying of xviii century divine, “there, but for Grace of God, go I,” is profoundly true of all. These considerations compel us to assum a determinist position in relation to thosC actions which we label criminal. This does not imply, however, that there must not be social reaction to these actions, for such a reaction is a biological necessity. But u may apply the physiological theory of the la Dr Rivers, our reaction, which has in past partaken of the protopathic or “all^f none” type, must now assume an epicrftlC regulated character.
The book is so clearly written and so eVj dently the result of much experience in dea ing with crime, that it will be found one 0 the most valuable, as it is one of the m?s interesting studies of the subject which h&s been written.
G. A. AudeNIntelligence Tests and School Organise* tion. By Lewis M. Terman, Virgil Dickson, A. H. Sutherland, Raymon H. Franzen, C. R. Tupper and Grace Fernald. Harrap 4s. 6d. net.
This book is a Sub-Committee Report of National Eeucation Association on revision of Elementary Education. The writers describe experiments in organisation whic have been made to eliminate differences m mental ability either by the individualisation of instruction or by making more homogeneous classes. The “Multiple track,” or Oakland System described by Dr Dickson pr?” vides for the individual by establishing more 0r less homogeneous classes in at least five parallel grades known as the accelerated, formal, opportunity, limited, and atypical classes. The last two cater for subnormal children, the opportunity class tor children ^ho have good mental ability?but are backward, through ill-health and long absence, and ^e first two for children such as the names suggest. To put such a plan into practice *Ueans that we must have schools with 1000 to 1200 on the Roll. But is it not a matter of 1egret that we should have schools with such kig rolls ?
?Dr Sutherland describes the Los Angeles Plan an individual system of teaching by projects, arranged primarily for special class children. Expense will not allow us in ^Ugland to carry out such a plan with normal children. At the same time the social advantages to be gained from the homogeneous class ?utveigh the advantage of a purely individual system of instruction so that perhaps it is as well if expense does curb us.
These all too brief reports make us rejoice that the psychologist is coming to the aid of the organiser of schools, and that the latter ls concerned not only with catering for the sub-normal child but also for the supernormal aud allowing him to develop at his own pace. G. A. Auden .
^thoduction to the use of Standard Tests. By Sidney L. Pressey and Luella Cole Pressey. (Harrap 6s. net). this book the reader is introduced to tests ? achievement in History, Geography, Englsh and Arithmetic.
Sufficient is said to show that their work is not that of the examination, and that they cannot take the place of the examination. The atter gives opportunity for spontaneous and ?riginal work but the former have the threepurpose of testing the child’s general HilHty’ ^etecting weaknesses with a view to e adoption of remedial measures and giving practice in the subject in order to eliminate weaknesses.
The English Tests appear satisfactory for testing spelling, punctuation and grammar, but the methods of assessing actual merit seem so elaborate that the result gained does not seem worth the trouble expended.
The History and Geography tests make too great use of the power of suggestion to be of real value. The Courtis Tests in Arithmetic give a very clear idea of the threefold function of the test?a general test of ability in the four rules discovers weakness in one of them, then follows a diagnostic test which splits up the total ability into its elements. The weakness is discovered and the necessary practice tests follow.
The writers are to be commended for their clear exposition of the meaning and value of both tests of ability and achievement. G. A. Auden.
“The Psychology and Teaching of Number.” By Margaret Drummond, M.A. George Harrap & Co., 3s. 6d. net. Though intended primarily for teachers in Infants’ Schools, this book will be found of great service to those whose work lies among mentally defective children. In the past, teachers have profited but little from the ‘ ‘psychology of number’’ as expounded by the theorists, but here we have both theory and practice dealt with in a simple straight-forward manner by a psychologist who is thoroughly conversant with school conditions and methods.
We all know the tremendous efforts that used to be made by class-teachers to get Jimmy and Mary and Tommy and Jessie, etc., to realise all on the same morning just what was meant by 7 sparrows and 7 oranges and 7 pennies and 7 sticks, etc., ad nauseam.
This book will have fulfilled a great mission if it helps us to realise very clearly that there is a time to teach and a time not to teach; that lots of play with well-chosen but easily obtamable material, combined with short lessons and intensive practice at the right time will bring us more happily and often more speedily to the goal. A number of really enjoyable games are suggested and guidance given as to economical methods of practice. Where Miss Drummond compares the achievements of the “Uninstructed” and the “Instructed” child, we are forcibly reminded of the words of the poet:
“Mankind are not pieces?there’s your fault! You cannot push them, and, the first move made, Lean back and study what the next will be, In confidence that, when ‘tis fixed upon, You find just where you left them, blacks and whites:
Men go on moving when your hand’s away.’’ The Special School teacher will be warned against hurrying her pupils to ‘sums’ and paper-work?tho elementary school tradition dies hard in this. With many defectives it simply means that in practical life their school work in number will avail them nothing at all if the foundations are not well and truly laid. Methods must be psychological whether or not they appear logical to the adult mind, and to ensure this there is given a careful analysis of the early stages of development along with the educational principles deduced. E.L.S.R.
Handbook for Mental Nurses. Published under the Authority of the MedicoPsychological Association. London: Bailliere, Tindall and Cox. 1923. Pp. xiii,+615. Illustrated. Price6s.net. Seventh Edition.
First published in 1885 as a modest volume of 64 pages, this Handbook has now grown into a comprehensive textbook of nearly ten times its original size. The present edition has been entirely rewritten and the scope of the book considerably enlarged. The subject Blatter is divided into sections dealing respectively with the duties of nurses in mental hospitals ; general anatomy and physiology; aid; hygiene; principles of sick nursing; bodi ^ diseases and their nursing requirements; ana omy and physiology of the nervous system > the mind in health; causes of nervous and men’ tal disease; types of mental disorder and their special nursing requirements; and menta nursing in institutions and private housesThe concluding chapter is devoted to an account of mental deficiency. This subject is fully and clearly presented, and consideration is given to diagnosis, causation, classificationt intelligence tests, treatment, and management and training. The treatment of certain subjects, notably that of the nervous system ana psychology, is rather more than elementary> and many excellent nurses could not reasonably be expected to assimilate thoroughly an the contents of this volume. The editorial committee realise this, but they feel that it Is desirable to include more than may be necessary for mere examination purposes. The contents of this book make it abundantly evident that the mental nurse is now expected to know a great deal of the theory and practice of her profession, but the clear and readable manner in which this Handbook is written* and the pains which have been taken to make a difficult subject interesting, should do much to make the preparation for examinations a pleasure rather than a burden. The book will not only be found of value by mental nurses but also by social workers who wish to acquire a knowledge of the various aspects of mental disorder. An error has been overlooked on page 53 where the spleen is described as lying under cover of the ribs “on the right side of the back.” H. Devine.
Opening Doors. A little book for the Mothers of Babies who are Long in Learning to Behave like other Children of their Age. By John Thomson, M.D. Everyone who comes in contact with the homes of young defective children has felt, at some time or other, the need of a pamphlet? cheap enough to be given away if necessary? conveying in non - technical language that information about training and treatment which comes as a message of hope to the mother who is quivering beneath the pain of the growing realisation that her baby is not like other babies.*
Dr John Thomson?one of Scotland’s leading Children’s specialists?has for ^ears been interested in the problem of the Mentally Defective child and studied it in terms of human needs as well as of science, and has now stepped into the breach with this little pamphlet embodying his long experience. Its nature may be gauged from the headings ?f some of its principal sections, viz., “On Babies who behave differently from Others”; ‘The Healthy New-born Baby and why he can do so little”; What you Notice when a Baby’s Brain is Growing Properly”; “How you may know when it is not Growing as Fast as Usual’’; What you can do for the Baby is he is doing too little, forming bad habits, late in speaking, to strengthen his character, if he cries constantly or has fits or faint turns; To keep him strong and well”; ‘ ‘Suggestions for the Special Treatment of those Children whose Limbs are very Stiff.” Under these headings it incorporates practically all the knowledge which it is necessary for the Mother of the young defective to have, and it conveys it in terms chosen with such a fine regard for the susceptibilities of the readers for whom it is primarily intended that there is nothing in it which could hurt or shock the most sensitive of parents.
To write a pamphlet of this kind may seem to the casual reader an easy matter, but those who have had some practical experience of the subject with which it deals know that the task which Dr Thomson has achieved with such complete success is one of very great difficulty and they will always be grateful to him in the name of the mothers they are trying to help, for his labour of love.
The pamphlet is to be sold for distribution at the rate of 25s. per 100; single copies are 6d. each or, in cloth, Is. 6d., and we confidently state that in future no office of a Voluntary Association can consider itself adequately equipped without a supply of the pamphlets on its shelves.
The C.A.M.W. has purchased a limited number of copies for disposal which it will be glad to supply on application, or they may be obtained direct from the publishers, Messrs. Oliver & Boyd, 83, Paternoster Row, London, E.C., or Tweeddale Court, Edinburgh. Causative Factors of Mental Inferiority and the Prevention of Degeneracy.
By J% E. Wallace Wallin, Ph.D., Director of State Bureau of Special Education and Professor of Clinical Psychology, Miami University.
This pamphlet is a reprint from the Proceedings of the 46th Annual Session of the American Association for the Study of the Feeble-minded, held at St. Louis, Missouri, in May, 1922. It contains a summary of the results of an analysis of the personal and family histories of 872 consecutive cases examined by Dr Wallin at the St. Louis Clinic and sums up the conclusions he has arrived at from this and other experience of the kind during the last 12 years.
Dr Wallin discusses at length the place of heredity as a factor in the production of feeble-mindedness and gives a summary of the views of other experts on the question showing how widely divergent these views are. He also points out the extreme difficulty frequently found in detecting adequate causation in individual cases, this being possible in the present enquiry in only 229 of the 872 examined. Of this number (229) he found that the mental deficiency was due to heredity alone in 46%, that in 16.6% it was partly due * We do not forget Miss Macdowall’s valuable little book, “Simple Beginnings in the Training of Mentally Defective Children,” but this does not roncer i itself specifically with babies, and is not of course a Pamphlet, to heredity and partly acquired, and that in 37.8% it was wholly acquired, and he sums up his general views on the subject as follows: “In my own experience, therefore, the evidence for the hereditary transmission of feeble-mindedness, in the sense in which that term has been employed, is not as positive or unambiguous as is desirable for the purpose of formulating a theory of causation which shall adequately account for all the facts and lead to measures of prevention or treatment, which shall be maximally effective. How then, shall we formulate an adequate theory of causation ?’’ The theory advanced to answer this question is that the defect in cases with regard to which causation is obscure and does not appear to be heredity, is due to the influence of toxic substances acting upon the soma or germplasm of the parents and of the embryo or foetus either directly or indirectly?a theory which Dr Wallin maintains (despite his realisation that it will doubtless be attacked as ‘ ‘heterodox and unscientific’’) can be shown to be supported by evidence derived from experiments which have been made with regard to alcoholism and lead poisoning. The practical outcome of the adoption of the theory is, he maintains, important in seeking to prevent mental deficiency in that it shows we “cannot depend solely upon colonisation, sterilisation or laws prohibiting the marriage of the feeble-minded but must also aim at the prevention of toxication of the germ-plasm in the parents of each successive generation.” Report on the Work of the Children’s Branch or the Home Office. April, 1923. H.M. Stationery Office. Price 2s. net.
This Report contains not only a record of the work and progrdss since 1916, of Industrial and Reformatory Schools but a review of all the other activities of the Home Office in connection with children and young persons, such as ‘ ‘Probation,” ‘ ‘Cruelty to Children,’’ “Employment of Children,” “Cinematographs,” etc.
The first chapter, devoted to a general discussion of Juvenile Delinquency, contains a useful summary of the various methods which can be used by Courts in dealing with young offenders, under the Children Act, whilst the chapters on Reformatory and Industrial Schools and on Probation are packed full of just that information which those who are concerned with the subject in any way ought to have at their command.
The question of Mental Defect is not dealt with at any length, for the Commissioners do not share the view of those irresponsible alarmists who proclaim it as being the chief cause of all delinquency and crime. On the contrary we read {page 8):?
“Mental defect is too often stated as the primary cause of delinquency in children’ It is often put forward as an excuse for an offence, and is used as an argument for neglecting the education of a child who is really only backward. Although it is no doubt true that many serious offences may be directly attributed to mental defect, the majority oi offences are committed by normal children who have not been trained to control their impulses.”
Much greater attention is now being given in Home Office schools to the problem of the dull and backward child, and it is inspiring to read that he is “no longer being given the minimum of teaching in the school-room on the ground that his mind is not worth development but is becoming an object of interest and study. Thus on the ‘’Cornwall’’ and in other schools the principal teacher has recognised that the training of these boys is his greatest responsibility and he takes the lowest class himself.”
But the whole Report should be read and studied by all Mental Welfare workers. ^ may justly be taken as the official embodiment of the new spirit in which the problem of delinquency is now being approached, and its complete abandonment of the old vicious ideas of repression and punishment is full of hope for the future.
In “National Health,’’ for May and June* 1923, there appear two articles by Dr Tredgold on ‘ ‘Mental Deficiency in Children under School Age,’’ which should be useful to those who have not the time or opportunity for reading up the subject in his book. The magazine can be obtained, at the price of Dd. a copy, from the Manager, “National Health,” 5, Tavistock Square, W.C.I.
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