The Social Treatment of Unmarried Mothers
- Author:
Francis N. Maxfield, Ph.D.
University of Pennsylvania.
Twenty-five years ago a bricklayer fell from a scaffolding and was killed. His wife was left penniless, with ten little children to support. For a while she made a futile struggle against poverty until she too died, broken by over-work and worry. As there were no relatives to help, the children were scattered in homes and orphan asylums.
Jennie, the youngest, was hardly more than a baby, so little that she cannot remember the names of her brothers and sisters. For seven years she lived behind high walls in an institution where one of the methods of discipline was to whip a child for complaining of sickness before inquiring whether there was any ground for the complaint.
When Jennie was nine she was placed at housework in the country. After months of frequent beatings and hard work, even life in an asylum seemed preferable and Jennie begged to go back… . In five years she was again placed out with a family who ” needed a girl.” She was now about fifteen. The man of the family made improper advances to her and at her terrified entreaty she was again returned to an institution, this time for older girls. After another year the institution authorities once more decided Jennie was “old enough to be earning her living,” and the inevitable position at housework was found. With no education or training even in normal home life, her work was mediocre and ill-paid. Her little knowledge of housework was her one asset. She had been institutionalized to such an extent that she had no “property sense,” no foresight for the future, and was so obedient and willing that anyone could exploit her.
In her loneliness she welcomed the friendship of Louis C., who worked in a “movie” in the neighborhood in which she lived. He was attractive, selfish, thoroughly cynical?the only man Jennie had ever known. They “kept company” for three years and she gladly promised to marry him. Under this promise he seduced her, only to leave town when she became pregnant.
After Jennie’s child was born it was found necessary to perform two major operations. She left the hospital broken in health, utterly disheartened and miserable.
We have given this story at length because it is in a sense a typical one. As we study the life histories of these girls we are realizing more and more clearly that most of them under a different environment might have developed “like other girls”. Lack of home training, loneliness and misunderstanding, an undisciplined will and inadequate education, all tend to thwart a normal selfdevelopment. It is encouraging, in looking back over a period as brief as twenty-five years, to realize that Jennie’s life story might have been different if it were begun now. There was then no Workmen’s Compensation Act, no Mothers’ Assistance Fund, no Compulsory Education Law. Institutions then kept no accurate records, so many helpful ties were broken and all chance of re-establishing families was lost. When Jennie was placed out there was no supervision from a disinterested children’s agency, no provision for recreation or pleasure. In a word, there were no social props of any sort to hold Jennie up, and the affair with Louis C. was the natural, logical outcome of her planless, lonely life.
Only eleven hundred so-called “illegitimate” children are born yearly in Philadelphia and several millions of dollars are spent in caring for the mothers and babies. A committee has been organized recently to study this whole problem of illegitimacy?its legal aspects, its medical-social aspects, and the question of social treatment. It is not my purpose to try to anticipate the work of this committee. I wish simply to discuss in this paper some of the working principles that have been used in the Social Service Department of the University Hospital, on the chance that they may be suggestive to others.
During the period from January, 1912, to August, 1915, ninety unmarried mothers and women illegitimately pregnant have been referred from the Woman’s and Obstetrical Dispensaries to one worker in the Social Service Department.
Of these ninety women studied, one-half (45) are white, of American parentage, one-quarter (24) are negroes, and the remaining quarter (21) are either foreign born or of foreign parentage. Seventynine live in Philadelphia or its immediate suburbs. Nearly half (35) of the women studied were in domestic service, 6 were at domestic service in institutions, 12 were living at home and not otherwise employed, 4 were still in school, 13 were employed in factories or mills, 10 as saleswomen, and 3 as waitresses. One is a prostitute; the occupation of one is unknown. Only 5 belonged to the “skilled labor group,”?a kindergartner, an engraver, a practical nurse, a milliner, and a stenographer.
As may be seen from the social records of these women and from the analysis of occupations, most of them are industrially untrained and inefficient. Leaving school as early as the regulations of compulsory school education would allow, often before completing the work of the fifth or sixth grade, they have entered occupations which offer little in the way of promotion or of educational value. Most of them have come nominally under religious influence and have been confirmed in church or synagogue, but home conditions have been adverse to the development of high ideals or incentives of conduct. Intellectually, industrially and socially inefficient, they have been drifters, with under-developed powers of resistance in the face of environmental conditions tending to social mal-adjustment. The main principles which seem to have been used in the casework with these ninety women are as follows: I. Cases of illegitimate pregnancy should receive attention before confinement and should continue under the care of the Social Service Department after the birth of the child.
Medical care and advice are important during the pre-natal period. The mental state of the expectant mother at this time makes her particularly susceptible to influence by those who are interested in her. This is the best time for adjusting strained home relations and for making a careful survey of the whole situation. Knowledge of the previous history of the woman and of present home conditions are most important in dealing with her particular problem as well as in studying the social questions involved. The questions of the paternity of the child, the desirability of marriage or of legal process, all have to receive careful attention. No matter how little care and training a girl may have previously received, the home situation at such times is usually one of strain and anxiety if only from selfish ideas of avoiding publicity and disgrace when a daughter or sister “gets into trouble.”
The worker gives instruction in regard to pre-natal hygiene and assists in making arrangements for confinement. Practical advice as to the care of the child is given and directly and through other agencies the women are assisted in finding employment and in caring for their children. The majority of the women come to the worker’s attention before the birth of their children and a large percentage are still in touch with this department. The helpful understanding of the worker is a safeguard to the mother and a steadying influence in her new associations.
II. Mental examinations by a psychologist are desirable. Not in cases of suspected feeblemindedness alone should they be made. Knowledge of mental ability is important in advising occupation, etc. Any real study of the question requires mental diagnoses.
It was possible in ten cases to secure a careful mental examination at the Psychological Clinic connected with the department of Psychology in the University of Pennsylvania. In some other cases the reports of employers and many personal interviews formed a fair basis of judgment as to the intelligence of these girls. The problem of accurately estimating their intelligence is often difficult. It is very easy for the examiner during his tests to confuse ignorance with stupidity, especially where the period spent in school has been short and where the girl’s mental horizon has been bounded by the factory or kitchen. It is possible for him to observe at once that her vocabulary is meager, that her fund of general information is pitifully small, and that she fails in many of the so-called “intelligence tests” which emphasize language development. He may forget that the mental inferiority of women as a sex was once established on the basis of similar observations. To come to a satisfactory diagnosis the psychologist must know something of the opportunity for mental development which these women have had, and he will take into account the reports of parents and employers as to the girls’ capabilities as well as their reactions to his laboratory tests. The ten cases examined at the Psychological Clinic were not chosen because of suspected mental defect. The result of such a mental examination often has real value for the social worker as a basis for vocational guidance and for the solution of other practical social problems involved. The psychologist is asked not “Is this girl feebleminded?” but “Is she capable of caring for her child and supporting herself?” or “Is she likely to profit by further training or should she secure employment for which she is now fitted?” Of the ten cases examined by a psychologist, five were diagnosed as normal, three as border-line cases, and two as feebleminded. No cases of obvious feeblemindedness of low grade appeared among the ninety cases. It seems probable that about twenty per cent of the ninety cases should be classed as sub-normal, but that not more than ten per cent of them coulcl be certified for commitment to an institution for feebleminded women if such commitment were compulsory. It will be the policy of this department to have more of its cases in the future examined by a psychological expert in order to have data of statistical value on this subject. III. Marriage of the girl to the child’s father should be considered on its own merits.
It should never be urged with the idea of saving the situation, or punishing the man. Technical legitimacy for the child does not warrant an otherwise undesirable marriage. The worker believes that marriage should not be contracted except on the basis of mutual affection. “Forced” marriage is seldom a solution, and even where it can be arranged, by no means always leads to a satisfactory adjustment. Seven of these women have married the fathers of their children, however, and five have married other men. The worker in every case urges the girl to tell the man her full history before marriage, if he is not the father of her child.
On the other hand?
IV. The father’s responsibility should never be ignored. Legal action for support is almost always desirable and it is a proper function of social service departments to assist in bringing such action. The present attitude of the Philadelphia Municipal Court in these cases is most helpful. Support orders are now made on the fathers for fourteen years, until the child is of working age, and in her struggle with the world the mother finds this help invaluable. V. The mother and the child should be kept together.
The reasons which should make exception to this rule (feeblemindedness, insanity, immorality, etc.) are those which also apply in the case of legitimate children.
The question of finding suitable employment for untrained women with little education and often mediocre or defective intelligence is difficult. The necessity of caring for the child adds to the difficulty. More are placed in domestic service than in any other occupation, but figures show that this is the occupation which contributes the largest number of cases of illegitimate pregnancy and this fact makes the wisdom of this disposition questionable in theory, however much practical consideration may make such work seem desirable. The standards of intelligence and efficiency in domestic service are low and the wages relatively high compared with other unskilled occupations.
VI. The so-called moral aspects of illegitimaaj itself should not be stressed.
The moral emphasis should be put upon future self-development and self-control, responsibility for and care of the child, rather than upon the irregularity of past conduct.
This study has emphasized the necessity of differentiating cases of irregular sexual intercourse. Most of the girls studied have never had promiscuous sexual relations nor have they received financial remuneration. The problem is not one of prostitution. In many cases the sexual irregularity of the women has been limited to one occasion. Even where these relations have extended over a period of time, it is usually with men whom they expect to marry. Consent was reluctantly given and in many cases because of belief that this relation would attach the men’s affections permanently to themselves. A large majority of them are girls of “reputable character.” Many girls from the same social stratum follow the same course of reasoning, but do not happen to become pregnant. Community reaction toward such relations is mild compared with that toward the girl who “gets into trouble” or “gets caught.” It is her illegitimate pregnancy rather than her sex relations for which she is severely blamed.
The following history illustrates these points. Gertrude B.? American; Catholic; bright attractive girl of twenty-one; employed as waitress; parents self-respecting and thrifty; home conditions excellent; considered a “model daughter.” Had been engaged to John S. (a driver) for over a year; postponed consideration of marriage on account of his irregular employment; sex relations for many months; this unknown to parents, who favored the attentions of John S. Gertrude came to Obstetrical Dispensary in 1912, four months pregnant. John had learned of her condition and had ceased calling; his whereabouts unknown to Gertrude; parents not yet informed of her condition.
The worker advised Gertrude to tell her mother at once. At first her mother was unwilling to tell her husband, and Gertrude was placed in a Maternity Home. The worker kept in touch with Gertrude and her mother, who finally was persuaded to tell the father. He at once said Gertrude “had been too good a daughter for twentyone years to stay anywhere but home.” Confinement at home was arranged. No legal action was taken, as John S. could not be found. A year later John S. returned to the city and met Gertrude on the street. She finally consented to marry him and they are now living with his parents; second child born 1915; social prognosis favorable. VII. Full records of case histories should be kept.
They are indispensable in any scientific study of the problem involved. They give system to the efforts directed to any particular case. The following case history shows the value of accumulated data of this type, even though for months it was to all appearances valueless.
Rebecca A.?Russian Jewess; seventeen; mentally normal, but below the average in intelligence; employed in mill at $6 a week; one of ten children; father alcoholic and brutal; mother decent; girl spent evenings on street. Rebecca came to the hospital 1913, two months pregnant; syphilis and gonorrhea. Claimed assault by Charles 0. Had been married ten days before visit, to Jacob M. (nineteen), a boarder with family, who did not know of pregnancy or disease. Later Rebecca admitted that relations with Charles O. had extended over a year. The worker appealed to a rabbi and together they tried to persuade Jacob M. to annul the marriage on account of physical danger to himself and for eugenic reasons. Jacob refused, fearing the ridicule of friends; objected to Rebecca’s being kept in Philadelphia Hospital for treatment. Rebecca would not believe that she was pregnant and neither she nor her mother thought the infection serious. She improved under treatment and was dismissed; difficult to persuade to continue dispensary treatment; reported intermittently. Employed in cigar factory for several months. Later appealed to the worker for help in securing confinement care. Baby born, treated at Skin Dispensary for hereditary syphilis. Jacob paying small sums irregularly to Rebecca, who lived at home. Baby died at three months. Family moved to Camden. Rebecca renewed acquaintance with Charles 0., the father of her child. Refused to come to dispensary. September, 1914, worker received word that Rebecca was living as a prostitute in New Jersey. December, 1914, Rebecca was reported to be living with Alfred R. Illegitimate child, died when one month old. House raided. Later Rebecca was arrested and through the evidence accumulated by the worker she was committed to the New Jersey Reformatory. Prognosis unfavorable; but at least society has been protected for a term of 3’ears.
The change in the mother’s attitude in this case is most significant. She has left her brutal, abusive husband. For the sake of the younger children she will not allow the oldest daughter, who is a prostitute, to come home to visit. She has given her eager consent to have another child who is feebleminded, placed in Elwyn, though when institutional care for Rebecca was suggested in the beginningshe objected violently. If our premise is true?that illegitimacy is due chiefly to environmental causes?the younger children of this family have a better chance than Rebecca had. The home is already much improved and the worker feels hopeful that the evil influences of the past may be gradually obliterated.
VIII. Definite and systematic study of the problem of illegitimacy by all agencies dealing with the subject is desirable. It is important that the different agencies which have to deal with illegitimacy in a practical way should publish studies of the results of their work not only as a report of accomplishment but as a contribution to the scientific study of the whole problem. They must appeal to all interested in reducing the amount of illegitimacy in our city or in practical dealing with cases of this kind to look beyond the facts of individual cases for causes of conditions which are socially pathological, or at best mal-adjusted, in order to arrive at general principles of prevention and successful social therapy.
This programme calls for thorough-going scientific effort without preconceived bias or religious or philanthropic hysteria. It has practical and theoretical aspects which cannot always be harmonized under existing social and economic conditions. One may theorize, for example, about the equal responsibility of both parents for the care and maintenance of an illegitimate child, and yet in our present society the burden of responsibility must rest upon the mother in spite of theory and often in spite of a court decree. In insisting that she keep the child with her, society assumes that she is?or can become?a fit mother for it; and it is on that point? her development in motherhood?that we must lay our emphasis in the future. It is a task that requires endless sympathy and patience, unfailing kindness, and a broad knowledge of social trends and principles.
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