Age and Progress Iist a New York City School
The Psychological Clinic Copyright, 1913, by Lightner Witmer, Editor. Vol. VI, No. 8 January 15, 1913 :Author: William E. Grady,
Principal Public School Number 61+, Manhattan, New York City. One can hardly face the problems presented by many of the large New York City schools without being convinced that in many respects these problems are unique, and that scant justice is done to those in control, if the efficiency of the schools is measured absolutely by standards obtained through investigations in cities with a radically different type of population.
I have been much interested in the recent discussions of school efficiency, as gauged by the factors of overage and retardation. The data contained in this article were collected in order to ascertain conditions in a particular New York City school that is considered sufficiently typical of schools with a large per cent of foreign-born pupils to warrant confidence in results obtained. In order that the tabulation of age and progress may have full significance, a brief resume will be given first of the city conditions and secondly of the local conditions, showing how radically our school population differs from that of many inland cities in which native English-speaking stock still predominates.
Within the past ten years ISTew York City’s population has undergone a marked change as regards its composition. The mere increase in size is secondary to the change in the character of the population, as shown by the following tabulation: TABLE I. PERCENTAGE. British Parentage. 1910. 1900. GainorLoss. Ireland ‘ 562,503 727,464 *165,161 England-Wales 114,322 144,117 *-29,795 Scotland ‘38,414 43,610 * 5,196 Canada-Newfoundland 33,484 3,728 2,756 Australia-India 1,046 734 312 Totals 749,569 946,653 *197,084 * Denotes Loss. (209) 210 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC. Northwestern European. 1910. 1900. Gain or Loss. Germany-Luxemburg 607,088 799,981 *192,893 Scandinavia 93,965 70,829 23,136 France 24,726 25,950 1,224 Switzerland 13,629 13,343 286 Totals 739,408 910,103 *170,695 Southeastern Europe. Russia-Poland-Finland …. 724,112 307,683 416,429 Italy 532,064 229,347 302,717 Austria-Hungary 398,079 163,237 234,842 Roumania 32,210 10,499 21,711 Greece 8,745 1,309 7,436 Turkey 9,982 1,401 8,581 Totals 1,705,192 713,476 991,716 Mixed Parentage. Two foreign parents 24,703 One foreign parent 528,990 62,189 491,504 Totals 553,693 62,189 491,504 Both parents native 921,318 737,477 183,841 Negroes 91,709 60,666 31,043 China-Japan 5,994 6,638 * 644 Totals 1,014,021 804,781 214,240 Grand totals 4,766,883 3,437,202 1,329,681 The following comparative statements, made on the authority of Dr Walter Laidlaw, executive secretary of the New York Federation of Churches, a bureau that has made this investigation its own peculiar problem, indicate not only the magnitude but also the heterogeneity of the city’s population: 1?There are only 921,318 people in New York’s population of 4,766,883, both of whose parents were native Americans. 2?New York’s population of British parentage decreased in the years 1900-1910 to the extent of 197,084 people. 3?The population of immediate German ancestry decreased almost as much as the Irish, English, Welsh, Scotch, Canadians and other British put together. 4?While New York’s population of northwestern European birth or parentage decreased, the population of Scandinavian parentage in New York was the only northwestern European group that made any substantial increase in the decade.
5?The increase of Russian, Polish and Finnish parentage exceeded the whole loss from British and northwestern European sources. The gain in people of Italian parentage was 302,604, or more than the whole population of Genoa; while the population of Austro-Hungarian parentage increased to the extent of 234,842, or more than the whole population of Prague.
6?In terms of percentage, the population of New York in 1910 was 15.72 per cent British, 15.19 per cent of Russian birth or parentage, 12.74 per cent German, 11.16 per cent Italian, 8.35 per cent Hungarian, 1.97 per cent Scandinavian, 13.49 per cent of mixed foreign or mixed native parentage, 19.33 per cent native whites of native parentage, 1.92 per cent negro and .13 per cent “colored”.
7?In the classification of the mother tongue of people born in Russia, the Census Office found such an overwhelming number who gave Yiddish as the mother tongue, that Yiddish is being put down in the mother tongue tabulation of the population of New York for the whole Russian group, with Polish as the other leading language of the Russian-born population of the city. This fact tends to confirm the estimate recently made by Dr Laidlaw of the number of Jews in New York City in 1910, placed by him at 1,265,000. 8?New York, which has an Italian population of 532,064, is second largest Italian city in the world, Naples having 564,000. New York’s Italian population outnumbers either Rome (463,000) or Milan (491,460) to the extent of 50,000 approximately. 9?New York is the third largest Russian city in the world, being exceeded in population only by St. Petersburg (1,430,000) and Moscow (1,092,000). The New York Russian group outnumbers Odessa (405,041) by approximately 300,000. 10?New York has an Austro-Hungarian group of 398,079, or one-half the population of Budapest. 212 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC. The foregoing data include both children and adults. The following tabulation refers to children of school age, assuming limits of 6-M years: TABLE II. AGE-CLASSIFICATION, BOTII SEXES, AND SCHOOL ATTENDANCE (6-14). (Census 1910?City Greater New York.) 1-5 6-9 10-14 6-14 Native White, Native Parentage 14:9,4:65 85,327 103,000 188,327 Native White, Foreign Parentage 4:17,099 208,987 237,156 446,143 Foreign Born Whites. … 23,200 49,196 77,334 126,530 Negro 7,784 4,006 4,858 8,864 Other Colored 189 90 83 173 Total 597,737 347,606 422,431 770,037 Total in School 299,840 398,175 698,015 The significance of these and of similar facts, with reference to the problem of the maximum uniform course of study under which our schools patiently labor, is obvious. Such data constitute the basic argument for effecting a change. I will simply state in passing that I consider such sociological facts a fundamental basis of a plea for a minimum course of study, giving a large percentage of unassigned time to be distributed at the discretion of local supervisors, such as district superintendents and principals, in the light of the needs of the particular locality. Dr Ayres states that an investigation of 20,000 pupils in the New York City schools gave the following results: TABLE III. Nationality. Per Cent Retarded. German 16 American 19 Mixed 19 Russian 23 English 24 Irish 29 Italian 36
But do these figures measure fully the amount of retardation due to language, racial traits, etc., of foreign-born children ? The span of school life of such children is relatively short. They pour into the lower grades in large numbers and unless unusual efforts are made to keep them in the grades, various causes, such as poverty, distaste for conceptual studies, desire to earn money, etc., cause them to drop out with great rapidity after the fifth year. Such elimination precludes their appearance in any study of retardation, based 011 pupils covering the entire eight years of the course. Moreover the fact of absence of retardation in the study of school careers extending through any given number of grades frequently indicates merely that despite authorized maximum courses of study and syllabuses, the subjects covered by such pupils and the degree of proficiency attained have been reduced to the lowest possible limits. In other words, in sections of the city in which schools deal with a large percentage of foreign-born pupils, frequent promotions, based on the mastery of the minimum amount of work in the sequential subjects, would tend to place pupils in grades which frequently are no real index of the scholastic attainments that one could reasonably demand under a maximum uniform course of study.
The following tabulation gives a more intimate view of the composition of the school population under discussion. The data were collected originally in relation to the problem of teaching English to the children of this group. On the basis of these and other facts, a request was made to the Board of Superintendents for additional time to be devoted to the teaching of English. The general impression being that the schools of the section indicated below were really facing the problem of teaching a foreign language?namely English?to foreign-born children, and that therefore additional time was needed for the teaching of English in the schools of the district, a questionnaire was prepared and submitted to the teachers in the schools of the lower east side of Manhattan, extending from Houston Street north to Tenth Street, east of Second Avenue. On the basis of the information thus obtained, the tabulation on the following page was made. It was assumed that the three factors investigated?namely foreign birth, foreign tongue spoken by parent, and the study of Hebrew?were detrimental to a mastery of English.
Inasmuch as not only the nationality of the school population, but also the size and complexity of the school organization, as well as the grading scheme in use in the school under discussion are vital to any interpretation of age and progress data, it TABLE IV. Schools?P. S. No. 15, P. S. No. 20, P. S. No. 64 and P. S. No. 188 (Girls). Grades?3d through 8th years, both sexes. Register No. born in United States No. born in Europe. . Russia?Poland Austria?Bohemia… Roumania Other non-English speaking countries. No. parents speaking foreign tongue…. No. pupils who study Hebrew P. S. No. 15 P. S. No. 20 P. s. No. 64 P. S. No. 188 1910 1002 908 or 47% 515 342 51 1579 or 83% 1314 or 68% 1923 841 1082 or 56% 483 145 432 22 1654 or 86 % 1454 or 76% 2168 1102 1066 or 50% 595 308 163 1712 or 78% 1464or68% 1576 946 630 or 40% 279 325 26 1434or90% 939 or 70% may not be amiss to outline briefly the organization of the school and also the grading system in effect during the current term. (a) Organization: Number of Classes 76 Dept. Classes 11 Regular Grades 54 E Specials 5 C 2 Ungraded 2 Kindergarten 2 Register 3090 boys The following tabulation shows number of pupils in various grades and per cent of total register: TABLE VI. No. of Departmental Group Classes Register Per cent 8B’.s 3 134 4.3 8A’s 4 135 4.3 7B’s 4 147 4.8 Totals ? 11 416 ? 13.5 A NEW YORK CITY SCHOOL. 215 TABLE VI.?CONTINUED. No. of Departmental Group Classes Register Per cent 7A’s 4 160 5.2 6B’s 4 166 5.4 6A’s 5 220 7.1 5B’s 6 249 8.1 5A’s 5 234 7.6 4B’s 4 174 5.6 4A’s 4- 175 5.6 3B’s 3 145 4.7 3A’s 4 178 5.8 2B’s 4 145 4.7 2A’s 4 157 5.1 lB’s 3 130 4.2 lA’s 4 192 6.2 Totals ? 54 2325 ? 75.3 E6B 1 34 1.1 E5B 1 35 1.1 E4B 1 39 1.2 E3B 1 37 1.2 E2B 1 26 .9 Totals ? 5 171 ? 5.5 CI 1 49 1.6 C2 1 46 1.4 Totals ? 2 95 ? 3. Kl 1 37 1.2 K2 1 26 .8 Totals -?- 2 63 ? 2. Ungraded I…. 1 11 .4 Ungraded II. . 1 9 .3 Totals ? 2 20 ? .7 Grand totals. . 76 3090 100.
(b) Grading: The grading scheme may be briefly summarized as follows:
Atypical children, after proper medical examination are segregated to form two ungraded classes. Immigrant children who cannot speak English form the two C or foreign classes.
Overage foreign children of the various grades, usually late entrants handicapped by an inadequate lan216 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC. guage equipment, are segregated to form the E classes, one in each year from the second through the sixth. Of the remaining normal children, the following classification is made: a unit class in each grade is made up of those who did exceptionally good work during the preceding term. These pupils remain in the class as long as they sustain themselves. If they fail to maintain the high standard of proficiency set by the group, they are replaced by more capable pupils.
A unit class in each grade is formed of the oldest pupils in the grade, the grouping being made on the basis of chronological age in the first four years and on the basis of physiological age in the fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth years. The grouping of the adolescents in these upper grades is suggested by Dr C. Ward Crampton,* Director of Physical Training, and is made on the basis of such external signs as height, weight, hair, teeth, voice.
The remaining group of normal average children form the remaining classes in a given grade. To illustrate, the seven classes forming the last half of the fifth year during this current term are as follows:
5B1?Adolescent class.
5B2?Bright class doing more intensive and more extensive work than the average class, but not necessarily covering a grade’s work in two terms. The teachers’ experience with these classes tends to confirm Dr Ayres’ conclusions “that our courses of study as at present constituted are fitted not for the slow child or to the average child, but to the unusually bright one” (Laggards in Our Schools, page 5).
5B3-5B6?Average classes.
E5B?Theoretically, a rapid advancement class devoting double time to sequential subjects of number and language, but practically made up of retarded overage pupils preparing to qualify to receive work certificates issued by the Board of Health.
*8ee Crampton, C. Ward. Influence of Physiological Age upon Scholarship. TnE Psychological Clinic, Vol. I, p. 115. The controlling idea in the foregoing grading scheme is homogeneity of the class group. The form used to ascertain the age and progress of the pupils was suggested by the Bureau of Municipal Research of this city.
TABLE VII. FORM 1. AGE AND PROGRESS CHART. CLASS 5A2. SEPTEMBER, 1912. a <=? ocs 0 3^ l 2 2^ 3 3^ 4 5 5H 6 6H 7 7 H 8V2 10 ioy2 li ii H 12 Total $ 1 5 118 13 4 6 27 6 4 49
The pairs of double-ruled lines indicating normal school age and normal chronological age for a particular grade occupy different positions for each grade as in the schedule given below.
TABLE VIII. Grade Horizontal Vertical Grade Horizontal Vertical 1A 0 6 to ey2 5 A 4 10 to ioy2 IB i/2 61/2 to 7 5B 4i/2 10y2 to 11 2A 1 7 to 71/2 6A 5 11 to liy2 2B iy2 71/2 to 8 6B 51/2 Hi/2 to 12 3A 2 8 to 81/2 7A 6 12 to 12i/2 3B 21/2 8i/2 to 9 7B 6i/2 12i/2 to 13 4A 3 9 to 91/2 8A 7 13 to 13i/2 4B 31/2 91/2 to 10 8B 7i/2 131/2 to 14 A tabulation of the data obtained on the basis of such forms follows:
TABLE IX?AGE AND PROGRESS. Public School jSTo. 64, Manhattan (3002 boys). Age Pbogress Age* Grade Less Normal More Moie Normal Less 6 - ey2 1A 0 117 55 0 152 20 6I/2- 7 IB 7 G4 73 26 63 55 7 - 71/2 2A 11 62 85 15 81 62 71/2- 8 2B 38 31 123 43 56 93 8 - 81/2 3A 8 47 118 36 82 55 81/2- 9 3B 12 26 166 68 42 94 9 - 91/2 4A 7 29 131 61 67 49 91/0-IO 4B 10 34 167 74 37 100 10 -IOI/2 5A 22” 41 181 80 79 85 10i/2-ll 5B 9 19 278 136 48 122 11 -lli/2 6A 9 26 190 73 76 76 lli/2-12 6B 12 21 175 81 31 96 12 -121/2 7A 14 24 149 44 50 93 121/2-13 7B 15 26 109 59 30 61 13 -131/2 8A 12 22 99 55 30 48 13y2-14 8B 16 28 84 75 30 23 Totals 202 617 2183 926 944 1132 (3002) (3002)
Group includes E Specials but excludes Kindergarten, C and Ungraded classes. TABLE X?SUMMARY OF PRECEDING TABLE BY PERCENTAGES. Age Less Normal More Total f Gain 3.7 3.3 23.8 30.8 Progress… j Normal 2.2 14.2 15 31.4 [ Loss 8 3.0 34 37.8 Totals 6.7 20.5 72.8 100 ?Age limits used in form suggested by Bureau of Municipal Research. That the conditions shown by the foregoing figures are probably typical of schools dealing with the immigrant child in the congested area of the lower east side, is suggested by the figures obtained in a similar investigation conducted by Mr. Anthony Pugliese, Principal of Public School No. 34, Manhattan. TABLE XI?AGE AND PROGRESS BY PERCENTAGES. (Using same age limits as in preceding tabulation.) Public School No. 34, Manhattan (2059 boys). Age Less Normal More Total Gain 2 3 18 23 Progress… <{ Normal 4 20 16 40 Loss l/2 3 331/3 37 Totals 6i/2 26 671/3 100 In order to compare the results obtained in Public School No. 64 with statistics already available, the following tabulations show the same data distributed in terms of other age limits: TABLE XII?AGE AND PROGRESS. Public School No. 64, Manhattan (3002 boys). The distribution is made according to tlie following age limits, suggested and used by City Superintendent William H. Maxwell: 1st school year 6- 8 years of age. 5th school year 10-12 years of age. 2d ” ” 7- 9 ” ” 6th ” ” 11-13 ” 3d ” ” 8-10 ” ” 7th ” ” 12-14 ” ” 4th ” ” 9-11 ” ” 8th ” ” 14-15 ” Age Less Normal More Total Gain 2.3 13.2 15.3 30.8 Progress… Normal 1.3 26.8 3.3 31.4 Loss 1 22.2 15.5 37.8 Totals 3.7 62.2 34.1 100 Tabulating again the data obtained in Public School No. 64 in terms of the age limits apparently used by Dr Ayres in his investigation of 206,495 pupils in twenty-nine cities exclusive of New York City (see Russell Sage Foundation Pamphlet No. 108, “The Identification of the Misfit Child,”) 220 THE PSYCIIOLO GICAL CLINIC. 1st school year G- 8 years of age. 5th school year 11-12 years of age. 2d ” ” 8- 9 ” ” 6th ” ” 12-13 ” 3d ” ” 9-10 ” ” 7th ” ” 13-14 ” 4th ” ” 10-11 ” ” 8th ” ” 14-15 ” we have tlie following: TABLE XIII. Age Less Normal More Total ( Gained 10.6 ( G) 3.8 ( 3) 1G.4 ( 2) 30.8 (11) Progress Normal 18.2 (21) 8.1 (21) 5.1 (10) 31.4 (52) [ Loss.. . 11.7 ( 2) 8.1 (10) 18.0 (25) 37.8 (37) Totals. 40.5 (29) 20.0 (34) 39.5 (37) 100 Figures in parentheses were those obtained by Ayres in the investigation referred to.
Conclusions: (a) If foreign birth, late arrival in this country, late entrance into school, inadequate language equipment, etc., are factors 2^inducing retardation, and if it be granted that the group investigated represents an extreme instance rather than the average of such retarding factors, it is fair to conclude that the school investigated is doing as well if not better than the average school in the twentynine cities investigated by Dr Ayres, not only in preventing overage but in accelerating over-age pupils so that they cover a maximum amount of work in minimum time; that there are almost twice as many pupils in each of the under-age and the overage groups as there are in the normal group; that only 8 per cent of the pupils of normal age have made normal progress, a poor showing probably due to a course of study that is too difficult or too comprehensive for the normal pupils; that pupils of normal age and less than normal age have not made as good progress as those in the cities investigated by Dr Ayres; that of the 39.5 per cent over-age, 21.5 per cent have made normal or better than normal progress; that a smaller percentage of over-age pupils have lost time than has been the case in the average city schools investigated ; that a greater per cent of pupils under-age, normal and overage than in the average city schools have gained time; that overage and retarded pupils are not necessarily the same individuals; that over-age pupils are not necessarily an additional expense to the educational system, although their late entrance into the wage earning class may be an economic loss.
(b) There is urgent need of the general adoption of definite age-grade limits to be used in making such investigations. As far as possible these age-grade limits should be based upon such age limits as are fixed by compulsory education laws, on “legal” limits set by City Superintendent William H. Maxwell and the “ideal” limits set by the Bureau of Municipal Research.
(c) That the use of the age-progress sheet, before and after promotions, gives the teacher and the supervisor specific information helpful in insuring the proper redistribution of classes and for critically examining the new classes, and on the basis of such investigation of the cases of extreme over-age or retardation making a redistribution of such pupils to classes for which they are fit.
(d) That such annual or semi-annual analyses of conditions would probably be the basis of increased confidence in the effectiveness of our work. In concluding I wish to quote the words of Superintendent Maxwell:?
“But economic perils and racial differences are the teachers’ opportunity. Here in this country are gathered the sons and daughters of all nations. Ours is the task, not merely of teaching them our language and respect for our laws, but of imbuing them with the spirit of self-direction, our precious inheritance from the Puritans; the spirit of initiative, which comes to us from the pioneers who subdued a continent for the uses of mankind; and the spirit of co-operation which is symbolized by and embodied in the everlasting union of sovereign states to promote the common weal. And as in my own city, I see the eagerness of foreigners to learn, and the skill and devotion of our teachers, I cannot but think that we are overcoming our almost insurmountable difficulties.”
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