A Study of Defective Pupils in the Public Schools of Tacoma, Wash
The Psychological Clinic Copyright, 1914, by Lightner Witmer, Editor. Vol. VIII, No. 6. November 15, 1914 :Author: Robert A. Cummins, University of Washington.
The material herein set forth does not pretend to represent a particular study of any kind, therefore the reader need not expect to find a solution of any specific problem, much less a determination of any set of norms, nor yet a revision of any that have heretofore been published. While the writer is in hearty sympathy with the trend of modern scientific investigation in which, as a rule, some definite problem is mapped out and undertaken, it is also believed that some value might accrue from a study which starts out with no particular object in view, but simply to study the situation and record observations. Consequently, during the winter of 1910-11, it was arranged through the cooperation of the superintendent’s office1 to undertake such a study of the ten pupils then in the special room of the Tacoma city schools, also the thirty boys then in the parental school, together with such others as might be brought to the psychological laboratory of the University of Puget Sound, where an Educational Clinic was established and a course offered for those who were preparing to teach. The period of the study continued throughout the balance of that school year and until the end of the following year.2 The writer was assisted in the work by five college students,3 who elected the course in Educational Clinic, the method of procedure used in the study being somewhat as follows:4 1 Tlie author desires to express his thanks and appreciation to Supt. J. C. Collicott and to Supt. William F. Geiger, for permission to carry on these investigations in the public schools of Tacoma.
2 Beginning with January, 1912, three free public lectures were given at the city Y. M. C. A. on “The Educational Clinic and Problems pertaining to the Abnormal Pupil in the Public Schools.” Also, at the request of the Teachers’ Council of the city schools, an article was prepared on “Special Rooms in the Public Schools,” and published in one of the city papers and also in the Northwest Journal of Education, the official organ of the teachers of the State of Washington. 3 Acknowledgment is due to C. W. Jones, William Olson, Marie Conney, Berna Miller and Helen Vent, all of whom rendered extra service in tabulating data, especial mention being due Misses Miller and Vent.
Together with an assistant we visited the special room and there examined all the pupils with the Binet scale of mental measurement, taking no less than thirty minutes for each pupil, carefully working up and down the scale and supplementing each test with incidental conversation designed to draw out the subject and secure the very best expression possible of mental intelligence. A number of subsequent visits were made in which the pupils were observed at their work and further personal acquaintance was gained with each subject. During these visits numerous informal tests (see a in appendix) of memory, imagination, judgment, emotion, etc., were given as well as some tests of attention and interest. After the lapse of about a year complete anthropological measurements were taken and the Binet tests were again given, this time being supplemented in the case of certain individuals with the form board, needle-threading, and deSanctis tests (see b in appendix). This was followed up by further testing done in the laboratory, where apparatus for making records, such as the kymograph, was available (see c in appendix).
The personal and family history of the subjects was obtained through the cooperation of the teacher and through direct interviews with some of the parents or guardians. This completed the data from which the graphic charts given below were compiled. If any merit attaches to the method used, it lies in its freedom from personal bias or preconceived pedagogical theories with reference to this class of pupils.
Chart No. 1 represents a comparison, in respect to vital capacity and strength of grip, of the ten pupils in the special room with the norms for the same age and sex, the number of pupils of each age and sex as actually found in the room being paralleled by an equal number of each age and sex taken from the table of norms. This study incidentally confirms the statement made by Dr Henry H. Goddard, of Vineland, N. J., to the effect that, when measured on the basis of vital capacity and strength of grip, feebleminded children show a characteristic curve. By reference to the chart the curves are seen to be characteristic in that there is a sharp declivity beginning at the age of ten, then a level beginning at about the age of puberty.
While the account of the study made of the thirty parental school boys is not included in this report, we desire to introduce here one of the charts from that study in order to point out one or two rather significant comparisons. Chart No. 2 shows a comparison of the thirty parental school boys with norms for the same ages for the traits, vital capacity and strength of grip. By reference to this chart it will be seen that the declivity does not occur until about one year later and it does not appear quite so sharp. Furthermore, at the beginning of puberty the curve does not strike a level as in the case of the feebleminded. Upon the whole the curve for the feebleminded is sharply irregular and always below the normal, while the curve for the parental school boys is only moderately irregular and varies above and below the normal.
Charts Nos. 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 represent comparisons of individual pupils of the special room with norms for the same age and sex. The scheme of charting used was devised as a convenient form for representing in a graphical way the comparative status of the subject, when considered upon the basis of twenty-five traits, as follows:? age, weight, vital capacity, vital index, height standing, height sitting, correlation of sitting with standing height, head girth, head length, head width, cephalic index, grip right hand, grip left hand, correlation of grip for right with left hand, steadiness of nerves, rate of movement, attention, memory, train of thought, judgment, capacity for mental work, volition, emotions, school age, and mental development (see d in appendix).
In the more particular studies, as those given below, further analysis was made of some of the traits; for example, steadiness of nerves was tested for holding, aiming, and tracing; attention was analyzed into three forms, voluntary, nonvoluntary, and involuntary; memory was studied as impression, retention, and recall; judgment was tested as sesthetic and rational; capacity for mental work included capacity for physical work as tested by the dynamometer in the case of muscle fatigue. It is interesting to note that, while pupils of this type as a rule always fall below the normal in respect to vital capacity and strength of grip as well as in most of the other physical measurements, when it comes to the mental traits they appear to fall into two rather well defined groups or types, which might be conveniently termed the “suppressed” type and the “excitable” type. Chart No. 5 represents one of the “suppressed” type, while charts Nos. 3 and 6 represent the “excitable” type. The further fact was noted in the study, viz:? that the transition, due to the growth of the subject, from the “suppressed” to the “excitable” state is usually effected through the change of the traits attention, emotion, and train of thought in the order named, while on the other hand, if the transition is from the “excitable” to the “suppressed” it is usually manifested by the failing of the powers of attention first, which is followed by a breaking up of the train of thought and lastly a condition in which it is difficult to arouse emotion of any kind. Chart No. 4 represents a transition from the “excitable” to the “suppressed” state, in which attention and train of thought are already suppressed below the normal, while in respect to emotion the subject is still somewhat more excitable than the ordinary pupil. During the time of our observation, which extended over a period of about one and a half years, the change in this subject was quite marked, as was also the change, but in a reverse order, in the case of subject No. 3. Subject No. 3 was observed to be growing more and more excitable. She gave strict attention to whatever was directed to her. Not only this, but any conversation in the room immediately aroused her curiosity and drew her attention away from whatever else she might be doing. In the case of the subject represented by Chart No. 6 not only were her attention and emotion easily aroused, but she persisted in talking glibly all the time. This was literally true, as she would not wait for any one to give attention, but even when we were engaged in conversation with the teacher this pupil would come up near by and begin to tell something which she had seen or heard.
Chart No. 4 represents a fairly typical case of which many are to be found scattered throughout our public schools, and the following brief account of the treatment of the case is offered as representing something of the kind of service that is destined to be rendered in a constantly increasing measure by the Educational Clinic:
The subject was first brought to the laboratory by the parents at the suggestion of the superintendent’s office. About two hours were spent in the preliminary examination, after which the subject, together with the parents, was ushered out without our giving any statement of the findings whatever, notwithstanding that the parents evidently had expected to hear a full and final report on the case forthwith! A few days later a visit was made to the school where the subject was in attendance and there he was observed at work among the thirty odd other pupils in the room, all of whom were from four to six years his junior in age. This was the regular 2-B grade, ages from seven to ten years, the subject at this time being thirteen and a half years of age. Next the family history was obtained from a sister of the mother of the subject, then the family physician was consulted, and after several weeks had passed by, the subject was again called to the laboratory, this time alone, when a more thorough examination was made, a number of records, such as voluntary and involuntary reaction, fatigue, steadiness of nerves, etc., were taken and the Binet tests were again given, supplemented by the form board and the needle-threading tests. A complete history of the case was then obtained from the mother and finally, after a period of some six weeks altogether had elapsed, an appointment was made with the parents to talk over the matter in the home. It perhaps should be stated here that the subject was an only child, who had inherited a neurosis through the mother’s side of the house, and the mother had allowed herself to grow up, so to speak, with the child, gradually becoming set in the belief that he was not abnormal to any extent beyond what might ordinarily be termed “dull,” and consequently the parents had held the teachers chiefly responsible for the retardation of the boy. Then too, as was pointed out, they had moved about from place to place quite a good deal, and in the estimation of the mother this was a contributing cause to the retarded condition of the subject. Our problem as we had mapped it out was two-fold,?first, to break through this shell of false belief with referenec to the real condition of the boy, and in the second place to overcome, if possible, a strong prejudice against the proposal to send her boy to a special room.
On the evening of the appointment the mother desiring that the boy appear at his best, had kept him in after dinner instead of allowing him to go out to play as was his custom. Anticipating some such action on the part of the parents we purposely delayed our going for more than an hour beyond the time appointed, hence, instead of being at his best, the subject was wrought up into a high state of nervous tension, augmented all the more by the fact that he had not been told just why he was being kept indoors. This state of affairs upon our arrival furnished the opening wedge for breaking through the shell of false belief referred to above.
In the course of our conversation we endeavored to enforce three points, the first two being with reference to the diagnosis of the case and the third with reference to the treatment of the case. In the first place we endeavored to impress upon the parents the status prcesens of the boy, together with the improbability of his ever growing out of it, or being any better. In the second place we pointed out the absolute inconsistency of spending another seven years in the vain hope of seeing him advanced possibly another grade or so in the regular classes. (The teacher, according to her own testimony, had advanced the boy into the 2-B grade chiefly in order to keep peace in the family.) And lastly, we endeavored to prevail upon the parents to send their boy to the special room. This last appeal was made not alone from the standpoint of the good of the subject himself, but also and perhaps in a larger sense more so, from the standpoint of the welfare of the thirty odd other pupils, who were in the same room with him.
Having delivered our message we took our leave with a feeling that little or nothing had been accomplished. On the following Monday we happened to be at the superintendent’s office talking over the possible attitude of the administration upon such cases in the event that the parents persisted in keeping the boy in the regular room, when a message came over the telephone from the special room stating that a certain pupil was there, coming from a school in the north end of the city, and that he desired to enter the special room. The transfer was promptly given by the superintendent, and our subject, for it was he who was sent to the special room, was thus assured the very best care and opportunity for future development that the system of public instruction affords, and at the same time a rather perplexing problem was solved for the teacher of the room from which he came.
The Ticket Punch Observation.
In addition to the study made of the special and parental school classes mentioned above, a number of other pupils of varying ages and degrees of mentality were brought to the laboratory for examination and treatment. During the course of these interviews and examinations a number of rather interesting and, as the writer believes, significant discoveries were made, some of which we beg to present for the consideration of others who may have occasion to engage in similar work.
Having previously procured a number of ordinary ticket punches to be used for another purpose, it occurred to the writer that such an article would be a splendid thing to use in connection with these examinations in order to work up the curiosity of the subject and thus to overcome timidity, which is very marked in the case of many of these feebleminded and retarded pupils. Accordingly two of the ticket punches were selected, one heart-shaped and the other diamondshaped. These punches, together with as much of the Binet apparatus as was practical, were carried in the pocket and were usually introduced incidentally soon after the subject entered the room and if possible while in general conversation with the parent or other person who had accompanied the subject. In case the examination was to take place at the public school, as frequently happened, we usually introduced the ticket punch while in conversation with the teacher in the presence of the subject. A real explanation of the use of the punch interested the teacher and almost invariably aroused the curiosity and interest of the subject. By a skilful punching of heart-shaped holes in an ordinary visiting card, either by a very rapid movement, or by the making of some familiar design as an animal or even a shoe, the interest and curiosity of the subject was still further aroused, whereupon a finished card was handed to the subject and presently the punch was handed to him with the simple words, “Can you do that?” This attention to the subject is only incidental and he is allowed to follow his pleasure for a few minutes while the examiner continues conversation with the other person. After a little while the examiner asks the subject how he is getting along, whereupon the average subject of this kind will initiate a conversation. From such a beginning it is comparatively easy to pass to some other of the regular tests given by Binet.
It is claimed that by means of the ticket punch, when properly used, one may determine to no small extent such traits as constructive ability, symmetry, completeness, motor coordination of eye and hand, capacity for mental work, and visual memory. The following cases are offered as being typical in representing the use of the ticket punch in clinical examinations of subjects who are older: A sixteen year old boy, designated as G. H., was given a ticket punch together with a card. After some little practice he was handed another card and was asked to make some design, anything he wanted to, to make it just as complete as possible, just as good as he could, in other words, to finish the job. Below (No. 1-G. H.) is an exact copy of the card.
The subject’s capacity for mental work was shown to be subnormal by the fact that it was found necessary to prod him continually in order to keep him at the task after the first three or four minutes of work. This lack of capacity for mental work did not appear to bear any direct relation to the subject’s idea of completeness, however, as he could not be induced to say that the job was done until after it had been shaped according to his notion of completeness. It will be seen by comparison that this card is very much more complete as well as more symmetrical than is card No. 1-S. H. The hole marked with a ” represents an error in coordination as the subject was observed to try to erase it and was heard to remark to himself “pshaw”.
Another fifteen and a half year old boy designated as S. H., was given a ticket punch, together with a card, and after some little practice was also given another card and asked to make something, anything he could make the easiest, to make it as complete as possible, to finish the job. The subject worked faithfully at the task for a period of ten minutes during which time the following conversation took place. Examiner.?”What are you going to make?” S.? “You don’t need to know.” E. (Always after a long pause).? “What are you making?” S.?”You’ll see when I get through.” E.?”What are you making, a house?” S.?”You’ll see when I am through.” E. (Purposely repeating the same question).?”What are you making, a house? ” S.?” You’ll find out when I get through.” E. (After longer pause).?”Are you through?” S.?”You’ll see when I am through.” E.?”What are you making, a ticket?” S. (Rather sharply).?”You’ll know, I told you, when I’m through.” E. (When S. had ceased to work).?”Are you through?” S.?”Yes, I’m through.” E. (Taking the card).?”What is it?” S. (After short pause, smiling).?”Why that’s a ticket.” (Note that the examiner made two suggestions, the latter being effective.) Above (No. 1-S. H.) is an exact copy of the card as finished by the subject. The examiner then proceeded to punch the design of a shoe sole, or track, and after some comments upon it the subject was asked to make one like it. He was given another card, but incidentally the one which the examiner had prepared was hidden from view so that the subject was thrown upon his visual memory. No. 2-S. H. is an exact copy of the second card as finished by the subject. From these three examples it may be seen that subject S. H. possesses a greater capacity for mental work, but at the same time is much less highly developed in point of symmetry and the sense of completeness than is subject G. H.
We append also the complete charts for these two subjects, together with a copy of the preliminary report which was given in the case of S. H. Similar charts and reports were made out for all those brought to the laboratory, a copy of each being sent to the parents or guardian, to the superintendent’s office, and to the teacher in case the child was in attendance at the public schools.
Appendix.
Report of preliminary examination of subject, S. H., aged fifteen and one-half years, of the city of Tacoma, Washington, examined at the laboratory of the Educational Clinic, of the University of Puget Sound, on October 28, 1912. Physiological age.?Fifteen and one-half years. Pedagogical age.?One year. Degree of mental development.?That of an eight and one-half year old child.
Anamnesis of family. On the father’s side, the father was killed in the army, the mother died at about 76. One brother and one sister. On the mother’s side, both parents died at about 69. Three brothers and one sister living, one sister having died at the age of 35. Subject has one sister living, aged ten years, and one sister who died at the age of four years with spinal meningitis, probably caused from measles and and lack of nourishment. Personal history.?Subject is the eldest of three children (see above), was of normal size at birth. Conditions at time of parturition were normal excepting that delivery was unusually laborious. No irregularities were observed until at the age of about six weeks when the subject suffered from a fall which affected his head causing considerable swelling. Subject has never attended school very much, hence has not attained much in the way of pedagogical learning. Has always manifested a halting nervous tendency in his effort to talk, being delayed more than three years beyond the normal time when a child should ordinarily learn to talk.
Anamnesis of the case.?From the time intelligence began to manifest itself marked tendencies of inability have been observed, chiefly with reference to learning to talk, which no doubt caused a delay of all the mental processes. In general the case appears to be one of gradual lagging behind in point of mental development, while in point of physiological development the subject has gone beyond the normal person of the same age.
Status prcesens.?The examination shows the subject to be above the normal for one of his age in respect to weight and vital capacity, height both standing and sitting, with the greatest irregularity in the case of sitting height. In point of head measurement, the girth is super, while the length and width are both subnormal. As tested by the Binet scale of measurement the subject has the mental development of an eight and one-half year old child, which would put him in the class commonly designated as morons. In respect to steadiness of nerves, the subject appears to be above the normal. In respect to attention, the large majority of his actions fall under the head of non-voluntary attention. As is usually found to be the case with subjects of this class the aesthetic judgment is much more highly developed than is the rational judgment. The subject is designated as one of the ‘’suppressed” type, requiring in practice that all his activities be constantly prodded in order to keep him at his work.
(a) Informal tests employed. For memory.?Examiner exhibits some piece of apparatus, as for example, set of wooden cubes, and asks subject whether or not he has seen them before. E. asks S. when he last visited the room. E. exhibits pictures or photographs and asks S. whether he recognizes them. E. exhibits piece of gum or candy and offers to give it to S. if he will say from memory a certain sentence. (E. makes up sentence, concerning the candy, very much longer than test sentences for one of S.’s age). For imagination.?E. makes up imaginative story of what he saw on the way and asks S. to do likewise. (S. No. 3 would invariably make up fanciful stories.) E. exhibits some of the standard ink blots and asks S. what they look like. E. asks two of the subjects to dramatize “The Hare and the Tortoise,” or “Jack and Jill.” E. tests for various kinds of imagery, as visual, auditory, gustatory, motor, tactile, etc.
For judgment.?E. says to S., “Suppose the house should get on fire what could we do?” E. exhibits some article, say a book, and asks S. to tear off from a large sheet a piece of wrapping paper big enough to wrap the book. E. places a thin board on two supports and asks S. whether he thinks the board strong enough to hold up E. E. exhibits a Chinese doll and an American doll and asks S. which is the prettier. (In our experience we have found that the average feebleminded child is more or less confused by the use of the comparatives).
For emotions.?E. relates pathetic story to teacher in presence of S. E. displays American flag and relates war stories. E. sharply reproves S. without cause. E. reflects upon the honesty of some relative of S.
For attention.?E. introduces the game of “Simon says thumbs up.” E. displays picture card with pasteboard form pictures of various things, as bird, dog, doll, gun, watch, boy, pony, automobile, etc. For interest.?The last-named test was also used as a means of determining the native interest of the” subject. (b) The form board, needle-threading, and deSanctis tests.?The form board used was the one designed and used by Dr Henry H. Goddard. In our work in Tacoma we found this an excellent means of determining the general state of nervous control, the sense of completeness (see in this connection our description of the ticket punch observation), capacity for mental work, and other like traits. The needle-threading test was also devised by Goddard and was used by the writer to test capacity for mental work, steadiness of nerves, as well as degree of attention.
The deSanctis test is described in Whipple’s “Manual of Physical and Mental Tests.” The large card containing geometrical figures was used alone to test degree of attention, being similar in principle to the “cancellation tests.”
(c) The kymograph was used for making records of tapping; steadiness of nerves, holding; muscle fatigue, gripping; reaction time, sight and sound; attention, shifting.
(d) Complete chart.?Age?taken in years and half years. Weight?taken in kilograms. Vital capacity?taken in cubic centimeters, wet spirometer being used. Vital index?ratio of weight in kg. to vital capacity in cc. Height standing and sitting measured in centimeters. Correlation?taken in percentiles. Head girth, length and width taken in metric measurements with anthropometric tape and head calipers. Cephalic index?the percentage of the length which the width represents. Grip right and left hand? taken with Smedley dynamometer. Correlation?the percentage of the right hand strength which the left represents. Steadiness of nerves? measured with steadiness tester, and sometimes, in case of older subjects, by aiming. Rate of movement?measured by tapping. Attention?in case of younger and all badly defective subjects, determined by use of deSanctis geometrical chart. In case of older and less badly defective subjects, determined by cancellation tests. Memory?rote memory and logical memory were tested by use of digits and sentences, and meaningful prose selections. Impressibility was tested by giving subject a piece of memory stuff to learn. Retention was tested by reference to previous experiences of subject. Recall was tested by requiring subject to reproduce previously learned material. Train of thought?tested by number of words subject could say in given time, say five minutes. Also as to regularity by a study of the list of words given by subject in free association. Whether based upon ideation or sensation, by observing subject when producing list of words and comparing list with objects in room, Judg168 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC. ment?tested by Binet’s set of pictures for aesthetic judgment, and for rational judgment, by problems of situation requiring “what to do” solutions (see under a above). Capacity for mental work? in case of younger and badly defective subjects the form board and the de Sanctis geometrical chart were used, while in the case of older and less defective subjects, the juxtaposed triangle test and the ticket punch test were used. A very simple yet rather effective test was to require subjects to cut all the leaves in a new book. (This has the advantage of being a real problem, and when introduced incidentally, has been found a splendid test of capacity for mental work even for normal adults.) Volition?for this determination we depended chiefly upon the information received from the teacher and from the parents. (For example in the case of a certain subject the mother stated, “Ever since he was old enough to walk and talk it seemed to upset his temper every time I asked him to do anything, especially if he happened to be occupied at something else at the time.” This would seem to be pretty conclusive proof of a case of precipitate will. Again, in the case of another subject we found it impossible, even after repeated visits to the room, to induce her to blow in the wet spirometer. As a last resort all the pupils in the room were lined up, with the above-mentioned subject last in the line, and required to pass by the “machine” and to “give it a big blow.” Our subject would not even then. Finally the subject was placed in the middle of the line and in that way was half induced, half coerced, to consent to the treatment This would seem to indicate rather clearly a case of obstructed will, and especially since the same was found to be true with reference to practically all of her work.) Emotions?in the case of younger and badly defective subjects, the tests described under a above were used, while in the case of older and less defective subjects measurements were taken by means of a galvanometer connected in a circuit of two dry batteries with the subject. Considerable experimenting was done with this test in order to reduce to a minimum the irregular physical contact with the electrodes. A form of brass electrode was devised which came in contact with the hand diagonally across the palm, the shape of the electrode being almost round with rather deep grooves cut crosswise on the top side. It was observed with the use of this form of electrode that, when on account of emotion the subject would move different parts of the body, the contact with the electrodes remained so nearly uniform as not seriously to affect the current by increased or decreased pressure area as was the case with the flat electrodes. The subject being thus placed in the circuit a series of varying stimulations were applied, such as the recitation of poetry of different sentiments, as Dickens’ “Christmas Carol,” the selection entitled “Rienzi to the Romans,” “An Order for my Mother’s Picture,” or one of Riley’s poems; arousing the emotion of apprehension or fear by the skilful relating of exciting adventures; the singing of college songs accompanied by piano in an adjoining room without announcement; sharp rebuke in presence of others (this usually aroused the emotion of anger). A strange unexpected noise in the room, as a shrill whistle, the dropping of a heavy weight, or the sudden rushing of some one into the room usually affected the most composed subjects, immediately after which the needle on the galvanometer would show a deflection of from two to four degrees above the “rest” reading. School age?computed on the basis of the findings of Ayres, i.e. that the average pupil completes the eight grades in about ten years. For example, a normal or average pupil at the age of seven would have a school age of one minus, a pupil at the age of eleven would have a school age of just four, etc., whereas some subjects at the age of eleven were found to have a school age of only two, and two of the subjects in the special room at the age of sixteen were found to have a school age of less than two years. Mental development?this trait was determined by the application of the Binet scale of measurement for mental intelligence.1 1 The original charts representing these and other studies of individual differences are now in the exhibition room of the School of Education of the University of Washington. They were made on a good grade of window shade material 30 by 40 inches, with three heavy leather eyelets placed on the top edge of each chart. Open and shut metal rings about 2 inches in diameter were placed in these eyelets, thus holding together as many charts as might be desired for any particular occasion. In using the charts for illustrating the lectures which were given, they could be conveniently turned back over an easel, or by dispensing with the rings and providing three metal pins about 4 inches long placed at the proper distance apart on the wall or on a cross piece fastened to the top of the easel, the charts could be all hung on the pins and removed one at a time during the course of the lecture. There are more than twenty of the charts altogether, including the author’s illustration of Professor Thorndike’s statement?”If the scale of measurement is made fine enough no two persons are alike in any trait.” There is also in the collection a complete compilation, in so far as data were obtainable at the time, of all the norms for physical traits of boys and girls.
This compilation included the harmonizing of the tables by figuring them all out in terms of the metric system, and calculating the half years in cases where this had not been done by the author from whom the norms were taken. These norms were thus compiled, harmonized, and filled in for both boys and girls from the age of six to eighteen years. This piece of work was done by Miss Vent in connection with a second course in Educational Clinical Work, and was found most convenient as a working tool in the making of comparative charts.
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