Shall Elective Courses be Established in the Seventh and Eighth Grades of the Elementary School?
The Psychological Clinic Copyright, 1913, by Lightner Witmer, Editor. Vol. VII, No. 8. January 15, 1914 :Author: I. E. Goldwasser, Principal Public School 62, Manhattan, N. Y.
Table XLI of the Fourteenth Annual Report of the City Superintendent of Schools to the Board of Education of the City of New York presents the following figures: Register before Promotion, June 30, 1912. 1A 40,489 IB 49,740 2A 40,327 2B 45,986 3A 40,336 3B 43,131 4A 39,568 4B 41,224 5A 37,329 5B 36,783 6A 33,237 6B 32,245 7A 28,875 7B 25,718 8A 22,250 8B 21,169 Total 1A-8B 578,407
In computing registers for the spring terms of the year, it has been found that the totals for B classes in the various grades are larger than those for the A classes. This is due to the fact that the admission into the 1A classes in September of each year is greater than that in February. The weather conditions are somewhat responsible for this situation, parents being reluctant to have their children begin their attendance at school in the midst of winter. Furthermore, the old tradition that the year begins in September, is also a factor tending to make the 1A registers larger in the September term than in the February term. Thus the register in 1A before promotion, January 31, 1912, was 60,962 while that on June 30, 1912, as already noted, was 40,489. As a result of this, A registers are larger in the fall term and smaller in the spring term in all the grades. Despite this fact, the 5B register is less than the 5A register for the spring term of 1912; and similar conditions obtain in the case of the 5th, 7th, and 8th years. In addition, it should be noted that the 6A register is 7252 less than the 1A register, while that of 8B is 12,068 less. It is fair to assume that of a given register in 6A classes at any specified time, about one-third will leave school without graduation. There is nothing novel about this inference from the data. It cannot, however, too frequently be brought before the notice of those interested in the schools, that under the present forms of organization and administration, we are not able to hold children in the schools even to the end of the elementary course.
Economic stress cannot be cited as the cause of this great reduction. No one who has interviewed the boys and girls applying for an employment certificate, can fail to have become convinced that most of these children leave not because there is a real need for their going to work, but because the remaining years of the course do not offer features which bind them closely to school. It is not that work is necessary but rather that school is not attractive.
In order to determine why the course of study seems not to hold within itself the features that make the school a vital thing to the pupils, it is not necessary to take the subjects individually and show wherein they have become narrowed by reason of traditional influences still operative in our school system. It might, of course, be shown that the course in English history in the seventh year, by reason of the lack of preparedness of the teacher, the vast scope of the subject matter, and the immaturity of the pupils, can never be made to enter into the real thinking experience of the children. We might refer to the 7A review of the United States and the 8B general review in geography and point out that this constant re-presentation of old material is uninteresting. Or the 8A course in geography might be cited as a curious relic of the old interest in science as an academic subject.
In a similar way, the course in grammar could be analyzed so as to show wherein it demands a power of discrimination and logical thinking beyond the average child of the elementary school in so cosmopolitan a city as ours. Again, the selection of masterpieces for literary study might be criticized on the ground that it does not properly provide for a vital point of contact between the emotional life of the pupils and the spirit of the selection.
All these criticisms have been made, and with authority. In fact earnest efforts are now being made to revise the various courses of study so as to rid them of the burdens of the centuries and make them adequately representative of the demands of our times. Our board of education and our superintendents have been at work at this problem for several years and notable reforms have already been accomplished. Others are promised for the immediate future. But even if an ideal situation is created in each of the subjects, the fact will still remain that the course of study will be essentially academic. Book knowledge will still be emphasized. General culture, of the sort that one attributes to the well-read or wellinformed man, will still be the distinguishing mark of the pupil who has mastered such courses. And the unfortunate fact will still confront us, so serious in its implications that its import is truly tragic, that the general fitness which we attempt to secure really means specific unfitness.
Take if you “will the ordinary graduate of an elementary school. What is he fit for? Has he an equipment that will make him ready to take up with even a reasonable degree of efficiency any occupation other than that of a clerk or an office assistant whose work is unskilled? His manual training has been with wood as the only material and with no machines. Her sewing has been by hand or on a foot-driven sewing-machine. Entering any shop or factory, such a graduate is no better, save in general intelligence, than an absolutely untrained beginner. The seventh and eighth years of the course have given no preparation that would serve as a recompense for the extra time spent in the school. Why, then, should a pupil stay? The lure of the diploma, as a cachet of culture, is not strong enough to hold one-third of the pupils. That fact is attested by the figures in our possession. And as an offset to the diploma, there is the larger pay envelope of the pupil who left in the seventh year and in a year or so has become economically more valuable to his employer than is the inexperienced graduate.
Even this, however, serious as it is, does not give us a true picture of the gravity of the situation. The inflexibility of the course, essentially academic?a book-course?would seem to imply a homogeneity of interests in the pupils. There is no material offered on which a variety of tastes can be tested. We have no way of discovering aptitudes of pupils. Excellence in history and geography may be discovered. But what assurance have we that we are not neglect208 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC. ing some extraordinary power in another direction? Eventually, such power must find expression. But the waste of tentative effort before a final form for activity is discovered is bound to be tremendous. Nor is it with extraordinary ability alone that we are concerned. How about the pupil who may be just a little above the average in some trade, who would find happiness in self-expression, but who is doomed to discontent because he was never given a chance to discover himself until it was too late?
Opinions may differ as to whether we can develop efficiency in any trade by training pupils in the seventh and eighth years of the course. There may be debate as to whether children of thirteen are old enough or mature enough to select their life occupation. But what argument can be advanced against giving them an acquaintance with many different kinds of activity?commercial, industrial, and the like?so that their choice of a vocation shall be made not in spite of their ignorance of all, but because of an actual, if limited, experience of work in each of the vocations? Let them learn and know the different trades, so that, knowing, they shall be able later to exercise a free choice. Let us eliminate, as far as we can, the accidental determination of a life pursuit.
If our seventh and eighth years were converted into an experimental period, pupils would soon come to find value in these final years of the course. And if, when the choice had been carefully made, an added year were given to the elementary schools, so that a pupil might receive simple training in his work, we should be producing efficient graduates, with choices rationally made and with an equipment that would increase their wage-earning power. In short, we should be laying the foundations for happiness and competency. Incidentally, we should be holding a greater number of pupils for a longer period in our schools.
Is there the variety of demand that is presupposed by our statement of the needs of the situation? Is it true that pupils in our seventh and eighth years have decided preferences for pursuits, for which no training whatever is given in our elementary schools? In order to determine this, a study was made of 2552 boys and girls in the seventh and eighth years of Public School 62, Intermediate. This school receives pupils from the 6B classes of seven neighboring schools. Almost all the children are Jewish. Each child was told to write a letter to the principal of the school, covering these points : 1. What do you intend to do when you go out into life?
Why do you make this selection?
3. If you could begin at once to prepare for this pursuit what would you like to take up? ELECTIVE COURSES. 209 The idea was to secure a statement of,? 1. Choice. 2. Reasons. 3. Pupils’ ideas of content of courses. Before any attempt is made to present the results of this study, one fact must be made clear. The mere choice of a certain vocation on the part of the pupil should not mean that such vocation is necessarily to be followed by him. Guidance is more important than choice. The selections here indicated were made under conditions which made it impossible for children to have discovered themselves. They were judging relative values, as will be seen, not in terms of their own powers but largely in terms of the degrees of desirability of the work they intended to engage in. The point to bear in mind, however, is that with a thorough-going academic course, wishes at all events, have already been registered in their minds. In order to make the choice more intelligent, the words Academic, Industrial, and Commercial were used and carefully explained to all the pupils. TABLE 1.?CHOICE OF VOCATIONS. Academic Industrial Commercial Totals Boys 396 273 440 1109 Girls 370 320 741 1443 772 599 1181 2552 Assuming that we had a perfect academic course, we should then be supplying the needs of 772 out of 2552 pupils, 30 per cent. In this particular section of the city there are many ” business schools” which turn out as from a hopper, stenographers and bookkeepers often with one year’s training or less. Such schools meet the needs of 46 per cent of the pupils. The remaining 24 per cent of the pupils wish industrial work, and the only agency in the seventh and eighth years, outside of the Vocational Schools for Boys and for Girls (where car fare is a deterrent factor), is the course in woodwork and hand-sewing, with a little training in sewing on a foot-driven machine. What are the considerations that influence pupils in their choice of a vocation? What is the occupation they wish to follow, preparation for which involves study in the courses indicated? The second of these investigations is extremely interesting as affording an insight into the definiteness of the selection made by pupils. TABLE 2. Among the 396 boys selecting an academic course, these ambitions are to be noted,? Architect 4 Astronomer 2 Artist 2 Chemist 3 Civil Engineer 19 Civil Service 16 Doctor 65 Electrical Engineer 2 Forester 1 Lawyer 76 Literary Man 4 Musician 4 Optometrist 1 Orator 1 Pharmacist 19 Philosopher 1 Rabbi 1 Surgeon 2 Teacher 45 Veterinary Surgeon 1 Total 269 The remaining 127 will be accounted for in another way.
TABLE 3. Among the 376 girls selecting an academic course these ambitions are to be noted,? Teacher 220 Physician 12 Nurse 10 Dentist 2 Music Teacher 6 Librarian 17 Teacher of Athletics 2 Lawyer 16 Author 5 Artist 3 Teacher of Drawing 2 Pharmacist 2 Musician 2 Total 300 The remaining 76 will be accounted for in another way. ELECTIVE COURSES. 211 TABLE 4. Among the 273 boys selecting an industrial course these ambitions are to be noted,? Carpenter 23 Electrician 20 Civil Engineer 64 Machinist 10 Plumber 8 Printer 12 Telegrapher 5 Designer 6 Surveyor 4 Diamond Setter 1 Farmer 4 Mechanician 4 Letter Carrier 1 Post Office Clerk 1 Artist 11 Builder 4 Machine Designer 1 Factory Owner 1 Furniture Maker 1 Inventor 1 Tailor 1 Teacher of Manual Training 2 Wool Manufacturer 1 Engineer 6 Automobile Industry 1 Pattern making 2 Cloak and Suit Cutter 2 Mechanical Engineer… 1 Electrical Engineer 5 Jeweler 1 Chauffeur 2 Forester 2 Bookbinder 3 Cabinetmaker 10 Motion Picture Operator 1 Mining Engineer 1 Ironworker 1 Total 232 The remaining 41 will be accounted for in another way. TABLE 5. Among the 326 girls selecting an industrial course the following ambitions are to be noted,? Dressmaker 143 Milliner 75 Milliner and Dressmaker 22 Designer ‘ 34 Teacher of Cooking 2 Photographer 1 Nurse 3 Artist 4 Embroiderer 9 Embroidery Designer 1 Librarian 6 Total 280 The remaining 46 will be accounted for in another way. TABLE 6. Among the 440 boys selecting a commercial course, the following ambitions are to be noted,? Grocer 1 Florist 1 Jeweler 1 Salesman 81 Traveling Salesman 82 Bookkeeper 186 Stenographer 69 Office Clerk 6 Bartender 1 Reporter 1 Public Accountant 2 Banker 3 Typewriter 4 Letter Carrier 2 Post Office Clerk 2 Bank Clerk 7 Shipping Clerk 3 Foreman Wholesale Dr Goods Jewelry Business Commissioner of Deeds Telegrapher Stenographer, Typewriter and Bookkeeper Broker To know how to pay workmen Total 440 TABLE 7. Among the 741 girls selecting a commercial course the following ambitions are to be noted,? Bookkeeper 262 Saleswoman 25 Typewriter 30 Stenographer 39 Bookkeeper, Typewriter, and Stenographer 51 Cashier 2 Office Assistant 6 Bank Clerk 1 Bookkeeper and Typewriter 22 Bookkeeper and Stenographer 4 Stenographer and Typewriter 97 Buyer 7 Clerk 1 Composer 1 Traveling saleswoman 1? Total 559 The remaining 182 will be accounted for in another way. Were the courses of various kinds given to the children of the seventh and eighth years it is probable that choices would be entirely different. Moreover, were the teachers afforded an opportunity to observe children at work in the various courses they would be able to add to their original judgment of aptitude the results of their observation, and so might make intelligent suggestions to influence choice. For it is to be noted that with a definite aim in view, children have selected the wrong course.
In some instances, the choice indicated clearly that the child had made a selection and still was entirely wrong in conception as to the nature of the course. This was true in the following cases: Academic Industrial Commercial Boys 4 3 6 Girls 0 0 0 In some cases the choice was made and no aim at all was stated: Academic Industrial Commercial Bovs 0 0 0 Girls 4 0 14 214 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC The mere fact of personal preference sufficed as a reason in many cases: Academic Industrial Commercial Boys 1 1 0 Girls 46 20 128 The wish of parents was frequently cited as the only reason for the choice. The numbers are: Academic Industrial Commercial Boys 11 11 21 Girls 9 6 22 A general liking for the content of the course was occasionally cited as a reason: Academic Industrial Commercial Boys 30 14 0 Girls 19 7 0 In some cases the selection was based on the child’s aptitude for such phases of the work as had already been taken up in the regular course: Academic Industrial Commercial Boys 0 0 2 Girls 0 6 3 The desire to help parents in their work was cited as a reason: Academic Industrial Commercial Boys 0 I 1 Girls 0 0 2 Miscellaneous reasons were given as follows: Academic i Industrial To lead a useful life I 1 Course is short j Desire to be happy Because of health j Work is easy j .. j .. 1 Salary is good j 2 j .. I 9 Course is practical I .. j .. I 2 Step to higher work j Postpones need of final choice…. j 1 Commercial 18 1 3 1
An interesting study was made of what the pupils should like to have the various courses include: Academic Course Boys Girls Mathematics 102 240 Grammar 2 Spelling 9 Latin 50 89 Music 3 15 Current Events 1 How to overcome obstacles in life 1 How to use surgical instruments 1 Drawing 14 French 179 1 Chemistry 19 German 45 1 Modern Languages 43 63 English 72 254 Spanish 18 History 32 56 Geography 33 1 Reading 2 1 Medicine 25 Biology 7 Civics 5 Law 31 Hygiene 16 2 Physiology 1 Penmanship 6 Contracts 2 Botany 5 Greek 15 Astronomy 1 Art 1 Italian , 5 Russian ‘ 1 Debating 2 Science 2 Industrial Course Boys Surveying 2 Plumbing 2 Languages 5 Arithmetic 113 Grammar 1 Agriculture 1 Botany 2 Penmanship 8 Latin 5 German 17 216 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC. Boys French 19 Geography 23 History 6 Spanish 7 English 56 Salesmanship 3 Art 2 Electricity 13 Carpentry 11 Machine Work 10 Mechanical Drawing 22 Free Hand Drawing 15 Woodwork 24 Science 22 Designing 5 Printing 3 Astronomy 1 Architecture 2 Bookbinding 1 Foundry Work 2 Metal Work 1 Tailoring 1 Woodturning 3 Geometry 4 Engineering 2 Algebra 1 Painting 1 Greek 1 Polish 1 Russian 1 Turkish 1 Spelling 5 Reading 1 Commercial Course English 137 Mathematics 172 Penmanship 81 Geography 38 Commercial Law 2 History 12 Science 2 Drawing 3 German 16 Letter Writing ? 10 Geometry 1 Designing 1 French 33 Spanish 20 Buying 5 Salesmanship 31 Physics 1 ELECTIVE COURSES. 217 Botany 1 Italian 2 Dutch 1 Languages 12 Bookkeeping 59 Typewriting 35 Stenography 65 Algebra 1 Designing 2 Spelling 13
A similar study of the content of commercial and industrial courses as judged by girls has not been tabulated, owing to circumstances which lead us to question the value of the data. It is interesting to note how definite is the demand. There is little or no suggestion of basic preparation, of a training larger than the need of the occupation itself. An ordinary trade school or a private business school will give the narrow work desired by these pupils. It requires a larger view of social and economic needs to build upon these desires of the children, a broad, fundamental preparedness making for greater efficiency in any particular vocation. How can this be done in a school of the type of Public School 62, Manhattan?
It may be well to make clear at the outset that an intermediate school offers many opportunities for organization which do not exist in the regular grades of an elementary school. The number of pupils in the seventh and eighth years is much larger; in this school almost 3000 pupils are enrolled in the last two years of the course. There are three shops, three kitchens, two sewing rooms, a typewriting room, two science rooms, and one laboratory. There is space for the equipment of special rooms for the various industries as they are taught.
The following plan of organization is suggested:
1. Secure from the principals of 6B schools a detailed statement of the special aptitudes and weaknesses of pupils entering the intermediate school. Classify new admissions on the basis of these reports so as to secure a certain degree of homogeneity in the composition of each class. 2. Institute tests of a general nature in the 7A grade, to determine general intelligence, manual skill, power of judgment in practical situations, etc. Tabulate all such findings for future reference. Miinsterberg tests or others of a similar nature may be used to furnish a basis for teachers’ judgments.
3. Beginning with the 7A grade and extending through the 8A grade, courses should be established in electric-wiring, sheet metal work, wood-turning, leather work, etc., for boys, and in dressmaking, millinery, embroidering, machine work, etc., for girls. Each course should extend over a period of nine weeks, thus affording a series of six courses. All pupils should be required to take each course in turn. Time schedules should be so arranged that at least eight hours a week may be devoted to the special courses. No attempt should be made to do more than acquaint the pupil with the fundamental simple processes underlying the various occupations. 4. Every pupil should be carefully observed while at work and a detailed record kept of his or her proficiency in the course. The work should be so planned as to make data available with regard to general adaptability, rather than to give skill in the occupation as such. 5. During the 8A grades, conferences should be held between parent, pupil and teacher, the results of the tests and the records of the course should be carefully examined, and the pupil should be directed into the course for which he appears to be suited and in which all conditions combine to make it probable that he will become efficient.
It is in the 8B grades that the special training should begin. Small groups should be formed for each course. Intricate processes cannot be taught nor can work of a heavy nature be undertaken. One of the objects sought in the studies of the Vocation Bureau of Boston is stated thus, “To analyze the relation of aptitudes, interests, and habits to modern industrial demands, and thus lay an adequate foundation for a system of training regardful of social as well as economic needs.” Whatever training is given should be along lines determined by some such study as this. The courses should be checked up constantly by the results of occupational investigations and must be organized with an ever-present ideal of sympathetic vocational guidance.
Pupils who wish to enter a classical high school with the idea of graduating should be enrolled at the “beginning of the 8B grade in classes organized for such pupils. Special attention should be given to technical grammar, to the fundamental principles underlying arithmetical operations, to oral English with particular reference to the technique of correct speech, to penmanship, to the mechanics of written language, spelling, punctuation, etc., and to teaching pupils how to study.
Pupils who intend to complete the full course in a commercial high school should be enrolled at the beginning of the 8B grade in classes organized for such pupils. Special attention should be given to correct oral English, as regards both the technique of speech and freedom from foreign idioms; to letter writing; to study of business forms; to an explanation of the principles underlying the various kinds of business to which arithmetic applications are made, such as commission, discount, insurance, etc.; to commercial geography, and to modes of manufacture.
Pupils who intend to complete the full course in a manual training trade high school should be enrolled at the beginning of the 8A grade in classes organized for such pupils. Special attention should be given to correct oral English, as regards both the technique of speech and freedom from foreign idioms; to mechanical and freehand drawing, to the fundamental arithmetical operations; to simple constructional geometry; to elementary algebra; to science; to modes of manufacture in the various industries; to shop-work. Girls who intend to complete the full course in a technical high school should be enrolled at the beginning of the 8B grade in classes organized for such pupils. Special attention should be given to sewing (hand and machine), embroidering, with applications to dressmaking and millinery; to cooking and a study of food-values; to home-making in general. For the last named work, use should be made of the model flat built for this specific purpose.
This will leave a large number of pupils who, under ordinary circumstances, would leave school at the end of the eighth year, or when they had attended a half year or more at a high school. During the year and a half, from the beginning of the 7B grade, the aptitudes of these pupils have been tested at the different occupational activities carried on; their general intelligence and their special powers have been carefully noted. A study should also have been made of their home conditions, the needs of the family, etc. The principal or competent teachers should have held interviews with the parents with a view to arriving at some knowledge of the pupils’ aims and those of his family. The “vocational guide” should proceed to suggest what line of work the pupil should take up. If there is still uncertainty as to what the ultimate choice is to be, the academic course should be recommended. For those intending to enter business, the commercial course should be urged, while the industrial course should be recommended to those who wish to enter one of the trades.
The term in these courses should be one and a half years. In this way, for pupils who ordinarily would leave school at the end of the eighth year, we shall be adding a year to their school career, giving them a quality and a degree of preparation which will soon convince parents that the extra time spent in school is more than compensated for by the increased efficiency,?yes, and the increased earning power of the child who has this more extended preparation. It may be urged that parents will not be able to afford to keep their children at school for the longer period. This may very well be true. Still it must be borne in mind that where legislation has prolonged the compulsory school attendance period, parents have found the means to support their children at school. When the grade at which pupils may apply for employment certificates was made 7 A instead of 5B, parents resigned themselves to the inevitable and adapted themselves to the situation as best they could. Under the plan set forth, however, the force which compels the longer stay in school is not exercised by a law but by the self-interest of pupil and parent. Is it not reasonable to expect that once the work has justified itself, parents will be more than willing to have their children remain in school for the extra year?
Many graduates from our elementary schools enter a business school for a training of a half year. The commercial course which is here suggested, will keep many pupils in the school and the city will for the first time be meeting a need which has for many years been clearly expressed by the people of the community.
The records show that large numbers of the pupils who enter our high schools from the elementary school, stay in the secondary institutions for a year or so and then drop out. A certain percentage of this “mortality” has been rightly attributed to the inflexible course of study, to poor teaching, to the unpreparedness of the pupil for independent study. But all the discharges cannot be traced to any one of these causes or to any combination of them. In many cases parents are so situated that they can afford to keep the boy or girl at school for one year, but no longer. Under the present system the only place for such pupils to go to is the high school. They are not really a part of the student body, they cause an unhealthy condition as regards size of classes in the first two terms, they call for large and expensive buildings, they create problems of management, of organization, of discipline, of supervision, which inevitably reduce the efficiency of the school. The pupils who have come to the high school for the purpose of completing the entire course are to a certain extent neglected, because of the great number of transients on the register. If the ninth year which is here recommended were adopted, such pupils would not clog and clutter up the administrative and supervisory channels of our high schools. They would not be sent out into the world with such inadequate equipment as must necessarily result from a truncated course. For they all have had onefourth of some subjects, one-third of others, one-half of still others. Their work ends nowhere. They have no general culture, they have no special training. In the ninth year, however, they will receive a complete course. True, they cannot get as much training as would be theirs were they to complete the entire course in an academic, a manual training, or a commercial high school. But they will be far more efficient than the derelict high school student who leaves at the end of one year; who does not know what he wants to do, or who, if he does know, cannot do it because he has had no training for it.
The planning of the work for such courses calls for much careful thought and systematic preparation. A body of opinion should first be gathered from men of affairs representing different outlooks, different occupations, etc. This may be considered the norm by which to test any course that may be evolved by educators. In every case, the course should be adapted to the community, and due regard should be had for the kind of pupils the course is intended to serve.
There may be some doubt whether a purely academic course should find a place in a ninth-year school, the aim of which is to increase vocational efficiency. As a matter of fact, this course is intended merely to relieve the situation as it exists in our classical high schools today. Arrangements should be made whereby pupils may be transferred from the academic course to either the industrial or the commercial, as soon as the more special demand makes itself felt.
The academic course should include literature, current history, business conditions, business arithmetic, science, civics, music, and physical training. If possible there should be work in ethics through organized activities involving personal, civic, and social service. The commercial course should include business English, office practice, business arithmetic, commercial geography and bookkeeping. The industrial course should cover for boys and for girls a complete course in the occupation, the training to extend over the full year and a half. In no course should work in English, oral and written, and in civics, be omitted.
The details of these courses must be worked out with the greatest care. Much preparatory work has already been done. Analyses have been made of some of the industries, and the processes have been reduced to their simplest elements. We are coming to understand better the principles that must govern the elimination of non-essentials from the traditional academic and commercial courses. All this, however, is a matter of time. The experiments will be tentative, and there must always be the frankest kind of self-criticism. But in work of this kind lies what seems to be a constructive attempt to meet one phase of the problem of elementary school education in its relation to the efficiency of the individual and the progress of the state.
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